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Defining
the word theory is tricky. Scientists use it one way, the average Joe another.
In casual
parlance, a theory is basically an idea or thought. It probably has no
carefully collected data to back it up, let alone any rigorous hypothesis
testing or experiments. In the world of science, however, a theory is a broad
explanation of a phenomenon or phenomena that is testable, falsifiable and has
multiple lines of evidence.
“Genuinely
successful theories interconnect information from previously disparate areas of
experience,” said Adolf Grünbaum, the Andrew Mellon Professor of Philosophy at
the University of
Pittsburgh. For example, fossil records, DNA evidence and biogeography are connected under the theory of evolution.
A theory
differs from a hypothesis in its scope. For example, I can have a hypothesis
that if I throw a penny off the Empire State Building it will fall to the
ground. But the theory of gravity goes vastly beyond throwing objects off a
building. The theory of gravity also
explains the motion of planetary bodies and orbiting satellites. So, a
hypothesis is like a mini-theory. It attempts to explain an event, and is
testable and falsifiable like a theory is, but on a more narrow scale.
Hypotheses
and theories are part of the scientific method — the process of asking and
answering questions by experimentation. The method exists to ensure that
science is as accurate as possible in explaining the world and that arguments
rely on observable evidence. The main components of the scientific method are
that experiments should be repeatable, so other scientists can verify or
nullify the results; data should be collected by observation and
experimentation; and experiments should be documented and shared.
Theories
are formed after numerous hypotheses are vetted using the scientific method.
Hypotheses are tested, data is collected, and the results are documented,
shared and retested. Then a theory that explains the data and predicts the
outcomes of future experiments is formed. Typically, researchers in different
fields of study tend to rely on different methods—ones deemed the best suited
for their subjects or objects of study.
One
component of a theory that can frustrate scientists and non-scientists alike is
that a theory is never proven and can always be revised. Experiments testing a
theory either corroborate it or falsify it. Even Isaac Newton’s laws of gravity
were revised after 200 years, when Albert Einstein found flaws and devised his
theory of relativity.
In general,
a law is said to be without exception, such as the second law of thermodynamics,
which says isolated systems that are not in equilibrium move from more ordered
to less ordered states (or less energy available to do work). Very few theories
become laws. Michael Weisberg, associate professor of philosophy at the
University of Pennsylvania, said in the future even fewer theories are likely
to become laws, since theories and laws are so frequently revised.
“We can
accumulate incredible amounts of evidence and say this is unlikely to be
untrue, but we can never give a proof,” Weisberg said.
On
the other hand though, scientists do not look fondly upon those who pooh-pooh scientific
theories such as evolution as being just a
theory. “It is skullduggery,” said Grünbaum. Yes, evolution is a theory, but a
theory supported by an enormous body of evidence.
“Ultimately,
to say something is a theory in science is an honorific,” Weisberg said,
meaning it commands esteem or respect based on the
many tests it has withstood.
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