Polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome (PMOS), previously called polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), is a common hormonal disorder in females. The condition has wide-ranging effects on the body, affecting metabolism, hair, skin and mental health, and sometimes making it hard to get pregnant, according to the Mayo Clinic.

PMOS affects over 170 million people of reproductive age worldwide, including up to 12% of U.S. women of reproductive age.

PMOS is characterized by high levels of androgens, the group of sex hormones that includes testosterone. It's often associated with resistance to insulin, a hormone that regulates blood sugar. The condition can come with a range of symptoms, including irregular periods, excessive weight gain and hair growth, and acne.

Many individuals with PMOS also have underdeveloped eggs, or "arrested follicles," lining the outer edges of their ovaries, which doctors previously labeled as cysts. However, calling these "cysts" was misleading, as people often thought they were the same as pathological noncancerous ovarian cysts, which can rupture, cause pain or bleed, and sometimes require surgery to treat.

The incorrect focus on so-called polycystic ovaries, which are neither necessary nor sufficient for a diagnosis, was part of the reason PCOS was officially renamed on May 12, 2026.

What causes PMOS?

Scientists don't know the root cause of PMOS, and there is probably more than one, Dr. Marie Menke, a reproductive endocrinologist at University of Michigan Health, told Live Science.

One possible cause is that the ovaries make excess levels of certain sex hormones, including testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone, Live Science previously reported. This, in turn, may drive many of the other symptoms, so whatever is driving the excessive hormone production may be the key. Why some ovaries produce excess sex hormones, however, is unclear. Efforts to build better laboratory models of the ovaries could reveal the answers to some of these questions.

Obesity and insulin resistance ‪—‬ the body's inability to use insulin effectively — also may play a role in triggering PMOS, although whether these conditions are a cause or consequence of PMOS has been a matter of debate. Other studies have proposed that children who are exposed to high levels of androgens in the womb may go on to have the syndrome.

Genes play a role, too: PMOS tends to run in families, and a person whose family members have PMOS is more likely to develop it. People with a family history of type 2 diabetes are also more likely to develop PMOS, according to the World Health Organization.

PMOS and pregnancy

PMOS symptoms often start in early puberty and some persist through and after menopause. Many people find out they have the condition in their 20s and 30s, if they have trouble becoming pregnant. PMOS can make it difficult to become pregnant without fertility treatment because androgens prevent immature follicles from developing into mature eggs that can be released and develop into an embryo, according to the U.S. Office on Women's Health (OASH).

People who are hoping to get pregnant have a number of treatment options, including fertility medications, such as clomiphene (also known by the brand names Clomid and Serophene); or gonadotropins, such as follicle-stimulating hormone or luteinizing hormone, according to the OASH. Metformin, a type 2 diabetes drug, can also be used to promote ovulation.

PMOS symptoms

According to the OASH, PMOS may include these signs and symptoms:

• Infertility: People with PMOS do not ovulate regularly, so they have fewer chances per year to become pregnant
• Infrequent, irregular or absent menstrual periods
• Hirsutism, or increased hair growth on the face, chest, stomach, thumbs or toes, likely caused by excess androgens
• Ovaries that are enlarged or have many arrested follicles
• Acne or oily skin, also likely caused by excess androgens
• Weight gain or obesity
• Male-pattern baldness or thinning hair, another symptom of excess androgens
• Acanthosis nigricans: Thick, dark patches of skin on the neck, arms, breasts or thighs
• Skin tags, which are excess flaps of skin in the armpits or neck area

Diagnosis and tests for PMOS

Diagnosing PMOS can be challenging because symptoms vary a lot, Menke said. And many of them are nonspecific, meaning they're not uniquely tied to PMOS.

To be diagnosed with PMOS, a patient must experience at least two of the three main symptoms described below, Menke said:

1. Irregular menstrual cycles: Irregular, infrequent or no periods are caused by a lack of ovulation. For example, someone may have fewer than nine periods a year or have unpredictable periods.
2. Higher-than-normal levels of androgens.
3. Polycystic ovaries, identified by ultrasound. However, some patients with PMOS have normal-appearing ovaries, and other women with cysts (fluid-filled sacs) on their ovaries may not have PMOS.

Complications of PMOS

PMOS has been linked with a number of other health conditions, including:

• Metabolic syndrome: A group of risk factors for heart disease, stroke and diabetes that is twice as common in people with PMOS than the general population, according to the American Academy of Family Physicians
• Type 2 diabetes: More than half of people with PCOS develop diabetes by age 40, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Cholesterol abnormalities, such as high LDL ("bad") cholesterol and low HDL ("good") cholesterol, which can increase the risk for heart disease
• High blood pressure, which can affect the heart, brain and kidneys
• Sleep apnea, which can cause pauses in breathing during sleep
• Anxiety or depression
• Diabetes or high blood pressure during pregnancy

Treatment and medications for PMOS

It is difficult to treat all of the symptoms of PMOS at once, Menke said, so she typically asks her patients what their primary concern is and then focuses treatment on managing those symptoms first. For example, if someone's main concern is excess hair growth, Menke said she would typically prescribe birth control pills, which can help reduce levels of androgens.

There are treatment options to help manage the symptoms of PMOS, Menke said. According to the Mayo Clinic, treatment options may include the following:

• Birth control pills, which contain either a combination of estrogen and progestin or progestin only, can regulate menstrual cycles, reduce androgen production and help clear acne.
• Progestin hormone replacement therapy can also regulate menstrual periods. (It is not a contraceptive.)
• Fertility medications can stimulate ovulation in PMOS patients who wish to become pregnant.
• Weight-management drugs, such as GPL-1 agonists, which include medicines like Wegovy
• Anti-androgens, such as spironolactone or flutamide
• Diabetes medications, such as metformin, make the body more sensitive to insulin.
• Acne treatments and hair removal therapies, such as laser hair removal or electrolysis

This article is for informational purposes only and is not meant to offer medical advice.

While spring is a lovely time of year to look forward to, for some, it brings about mixed feelings because their hay fever symptoms increase as the weather improves. Hay fever often leaves people with a runny nose, itchy eyes, sore throats, coughs and sneezes. However, there are things you can do to reduce how much pollen impacts you at this time of year, so here are our top five tips on how to survive hay fever season.

We spoke to Melanie Carver, chief mission officer of the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA), who offered some expert advice and tips on how to survive hay fever season. One option is to consider one of the best air purifiers to keep the air in your home as clean as possible.

Read on to find out what advice the experts give.

• Related: Best air purifiers for allergies 2026: Breathe easy this spring
• Related: Best air purifiers for pet owners 2026: Remove pet dander, hair and odors

Keep your windows closed

As soon as spring hits, it's tempting to open the windows and let the fresh air spruce up your home, especially if it's been a long, cold and wet winter. However, for those who suffer with hay fever, this may, in fact, be encouraging those allergens into the home. Pollen travels through the air, so if you open the windows, pollen can enter the home and increase the occurrence of sneezing, itchy eyes and coughing.

Melanie Carver, chief mission officer of the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA), explains: "Open windows, even windows with screens, allow pollen to enter the home easily, especially during times when pollen counts are high. Individuals with pollen allergy (tree, grass, and weed pollen are the most common) may experience allergy symptoms if the pollen that triggers their allergies is present in the home. Symptoms may include a runny nose, a stuffy nose, sneezing, itchy and watery eyes and coughing/wheezing.

"One of the best ways to manage pollen allergy symptoms is to reduce exposure to pollen. This means keeping windows closed when pollen counts are high and taking steps to prevent pollen from being in your home."

While keeping your windows closed in the lovely spring weather might sound annoying, especially if you want to freshen up your home, keeping your windows closed can have other benefits, such as keeping the warm air out of your home and helping to keep it cooler if it is a particularly hot season.

Use an air purifier to remove indoor allergens

If pollen does get into the home (which, to some extent, is inevitable), the best air purifiers can help remove these allergens and make your indoor space more pleasant during hay fever season.

Air purifiers work by using fans to draw in the indoor air and then passing it through a filter, effectively removing the allergens. The filters trap microscopic particles such as pollen, so these particles never reach your lungs. By removing these particles from the air, this can also reduce the amount of sneezing, itchy eyes and coughing you experience during hay fever season. Our top tip when buying an air purifier for allergies is to get one with a HEPA filter — these are the most effective filters.

Our expert, Melanie Carver, said: "HEPA – high efficiency particulate air – filters are an effective way to reduce exposure to common allergens, including pollens. HEPA filters work by using a fine two mesh of fibers to trap particles (such as pollen) and prevent them from being redistributed into the air. Asthma & Allergy Friendly® Certified air purifiers or air filters with HEPA can help reduce your exposure to allergens and airway irritants."

Change your clothes when you get home

To some, this might seem a bit extreme, but pollen and other allergens can get trapped on fabrics while you're out and about. Pollen is an airborne particle, meaning it moves around in the air, but it also attaches itself to various surfaces once it comes in contact with them. Therefore, changing your clothes when you get home can reduce the risk of further irritation to your respiratory system later in the day.

As pollen can also get trapped on your hair and skin, it isn't a bad idea to shower and wash your hair upon returning home for the day, either.

"AAFA recommends changing clothes after you’ve been outside on high pollen count days. This is one way to help reduce your exposure to the pollen that may trigger your allergy symptoms," said Melanie Carver. "Put dirty laundry directly into your washer, or at least not in your bedroom. We also recommend washing your hands as well as washing your hair to help remove pollen. For people who can’t or don’t want to wash their hair that often, use a hair covering when outside to prevent pollen from collecting on one's head.

"Additionally, we recommend wiping down your pets when they come in from outside to help keep them from spreading pollen around your home — and when possible, bathe them once a week," Carver said.

Dry laundry indoors

Similar to changing your clothes upon returning home, it's a wise idea to avoid drying your laundry outside during hay fever season.

In much the same way as pollen can attach to your clothing when out, it is the same if you dry your laundry outside. You are leaving your clothes prone to that transmission, which will then come into your home and into your wardrobe or cupboard. By drying your laundry indoors, whether that be on an airer or in a tumble dryer, you will be reducing the risk of bringing pollen into your home and contaminating other surfaces and/or clothes.

"Like other small particles, pollen settles on surfaces and may become embedded in fabric, including carpet, curtains and bedding. It is important to regularly clean surfaces — wiping down hard surfaces with a damp cloth, vacuuming carpets and furniture fabric, and washing rugs and curtains," said Melanie Carver of AAFA.

Use a vacuum cleaner with HEPA filters

As we mentioned earlier, air purifiers are a great way to keep the air in your home allergen-free (or at least reduced). Air purifiers use HEPA filters to make sure this removal of allergens is effective, and some vacuum cleaners also use these filters to ensure effective removal.

Hoovers with HEPA filters work by capturing microscopic particles, such as pollen, by trapping these particles within the filter. Vacuum cleaners without HEPA filters may not effectively trap these allergenic particles and instead release them back into the air. Therefore, we recommend using or investing in a vacuum cleaner that uses HEPA filters.

"HEPA — high efficiency particulate air — filters on vacuums can be a useful tool in reducing pollen and other allergens from the home," said Melanie Carver.

"Taking care to change your vacuum cleaner’s filters regularly helps ensure they operate most effectively to reduce allergens. Many vacuums, even those with HEPA filters, stir up a lot of debris into the air. People with sensitive airways should consider wearing a mask when vacuuming or have someone without asthma/allergies do the vacuuming, while the person with asthma/allergies stays out of the room for several hours until the dust settles. For some people, removing wall-to-wall carpeting may be a better solution."

Melanie Carver also offered tips on what to look for in a vacuum if you are a hay fever sufferer. "When choosing a vacuum cleaner, look for the following," she said. "The vacuum must be proven to remove surface allergens, dust released when changing the vacuum bag or canister should remain low, exposure to allergens while changing the bag or cleaning the canister should be low, water-based collection systems must not negatively impact the relative humidity of the air and carpet and water-based collection systems must have a care code that emphasizes the importance of mold growth prevention in the collection system."

One of the best air purifiers is a worthwhile investment during hay fever season. They work by filtering the indoor air in your home, removing nasty particulates such as pollen. However, to ensure they can work effectively, there are certain things you need to do.

We spoke to Melanie Carver, chief mission officer of the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA), who offered some advice on the mistakes to avoid when using an air purifier to reduce hay fever symptoms.

Placing the air purifier next to an open window

For those with hay fever, an air purifier can make a big difference by reducing the amount of allergens in the home, including pollen. However, it's important to ensure they are used correctly so they are most effective.

During hay fever season, sufferers are advised to keep their windows closed, to reduce the amount of pollen that can get into the home. While you don't have to follow this advice, and may prefer to let some fresh air into your home, having an air purifier on while it's near an open window can mean that it can't do its job as effectively.

Melanie Carver, chief mission officer of the Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA), explains: "When pollen counts are high, AAFA recommends keeping your windows closed. Placing an air purifier next to an open window will cause the device to filter outdoor air, meaning it will be less effective at cleaning the indoor air. Air purifiers have capacity limits and should only be used to filter air from appropriate-sized rooms."

Not changing filters

While air purifiers can do a great job of removing allergens from the home, it is important that essential maintenance is carried out on them regularly to make sure they are performing at their best. Part of this maintenance is changing the filters.

Each brand and model of air purifier will have its own recommendations on when to change the filter, and it's important that these are followed. An ineffective filter can mean the air purifier isn't catching as many of the allergens in your home as you think, and for hay fever sufferers, this can lead to more sneezing, itchy eyes and coughing than if the filter was effective.

"AAFA recommends changing the filter on your air purifier/air cleaner according to the manufacturer’s recommendations — usually once every 2 to 3 months," said Melanie Carver. "A dirty air filter is less effective and may result in allergens being sent back into the air."

Not running the purifier continuously

Air purifiers work best if you run them continuously. During hay fever season, this can be particularly useful as it means the air purifier can continue to circulate and filter the indoor air, constantly reducing the amount of pollen particulates within the home.

If they are only run for a few hours each day, they can not be as effective in ensuring the pollen level remains low. This is especially true if windows and doors are left open or pollen is brought into the home via clothes or on dog and cat fur, for example. By running them continuously, the pollen level will be managed much more effectively.

"Continuously running an air purifier helps remove pollen and other allergens from your indoor air. If you use a portable air purifier, you should place it in the room where you spend the most time. For example, in the bedroom while sleeping. Depending on the room size and the rating of the air purifier, it can take up to several hours to cycle through and filter a room’s air," said Melanie Carver of the AAFA.

Placing it in a corner

Air purifiers come in many shapes and sizes and can be effective for different-sized rooms. One top tip is to ensure you buy one that is suitable for the size of the room you need to purify. Another tip is to make sure you place it in a good location where it can circulate the air efficiently. Placing it behind or next to furniture, or in the corner of a room, can make it harder for the air purifier to circulate the air effectively, and to reduce the level of pollen within the space.

"AAFA recommends placing an air purifier in the room or rooms where you spend most of your time. For example, you should place an air purifier in your bedroom while sleeping to help reduce exposure to allergens," said Melanie Carver.

"When choosing a location for your air cleaner, you want to put it somewhere that supports optimal air flow. Putting it behind a door, piece of large furniture or against a wall will obstruct the air flow. Choose an open location about 1 to 3 feet from obstructions and elevated up off the floor for better circulation.

"When using an air purifier, it is important to pay attention to the CADR rating. CADR stands for Clean Air Delivery Rate and indicates how effective a purifier is in removing air pollution from a room. Placing an air purifier in a room larger than its CADR rating will reduce its effectiveness. Additionally, air purifiers that earn the Asthma & Allergy Friendly® Certification meet strict scientific standards for reducing allergens and for ensuring that allergen reduction is the result of removal rather than just redistribution."

Not cleaning other surfaces

Yes, air purifiers can work well to remove allergens from the home, but the purchaser also has to take some responsibility in ensuring their home is kept up to a habitable standard.

Air purifiers work by filtering the air, so if surfaces are left dusty, there is more dust that can be moved around the home. This makes the air purifier work harder — it will be constantly battling to try and filter the air. Similarly, if surfaces are not kept clean, pollen particulates can attach themselves to surfaces, meaning no matter how hard the air purifier works to try and bring the level of pollen down within the home, it will always struggle to do so.

"Keeping surfaces clean helps reduce dust and pollen that may become airborne," said Melanie Carver. "These are tiny particles that get picked up into the air by walking by, using a vacuum, blowing a fan or air cleaner or even cleaning. One of the best ways to manage allergies like pollen or dust mite allergy is to prevent, capture and remove allergens that may collect in your home. Keeping surfaces clean helps reduce how much work an air purifier needs to do to filter your home’s air — it will also prevent premature filter clogging and extend the life of your air filters/machine."

Here at Live Science, we have created a guide to 22 gifts for nature lovers to give you some ideas of what to buy other people, but what about you?

Items like cameras, binoculars, and telescopes aren't impulse buys, and certainly not stocking fillers. They are also very personal purchases, and often expensive. Trusting someone else to make the right choice on your behalf is a gamble, and frankly, we wouldn't always recommend it.

If you're a skywatcher, you'll have a preference for what you like to look at; some telescopes will be more suitable for deep space explorations, and others will be best for planets. Similarly, photographers will know the subject matter they want to capture, which will dictate what the camera needs to be good at. Handling ISO well, a reliable autofocus? Mirrorless or DSLR? 12MP versus 61MP?

Nature spotters and birders will know what magnification and objective lens size they need for their binoculars, whether they need a waterproof or nitrogen-purged model, and whether they prefer coated or multi-coated lenses or Bk7 or BaK-4 glass. The list goes on.

There's a good chance someone buying a pair as a gift won't consider what you would if you were buying for yourself. But skywatching and camera equipment are often expensive, and deserve careful consideration. This is why self-gifting makes sense. Besides, we all like to splurge on a "me-to-me" every now and then!

That is why we created this self-gifting guide, which lists the binoculars, telescopes and cameras that we are more than happy to recommend this season. Each item below links to an in-depth review conducted by our staff writers or experienced freelance contributors.

We do, of course, have individual guides to the best cameras, best binoculars, and best telescopes, but this guide has been curated based on what our editors would buy for themselves — and have, in some cases — in each of the categories below.

Binoculars

This first section is for skywatchers who don't want a telescope, as well as wildlife watchers and birders. Other people might think they know what you want, but it really pays to do the research for yourself. Binoculars aren't just about how powerful they are.

Binoculars vary depending on their purpose. Stargazing, birding, wildlife spotting and sports viewing will all require different objective lens sizes, have more suitable fields of view, and require different quality glass and coatings. For example, a pair that is ideal for astronomy might be too heavy and impractical for long walks, while compact travel binoculars might fall short under dark skies.

Comfort is also a crucial consideration. Weight, balance, eyecup design, interpupillary distance (will you use them whilst wearing spectacles?) and grip all affect how long you can comfortably use a pair of binoculars for. These are things only you can judge.

Comfort aside, optical preferences are personal, too. Some people might prioritize brightness, whereas others prefer edge-to-edge sharpness or excellent colour accuracy.

Binoculars are typically a long-term investment. A well-chosen pair can last decades. It’s worth making sure they suit your needs now and into the future. Here is a list of binoculars that we believe strike the perfect balance between performance, versatility, and ease of use. Each one is a standout choice in its category.

Telescopes

Next up, we have telescopes — and as previously touched on, which is the right telescope for you depends on exactly what you want to observe.

Do you want to see local planets and the moon, or deep-sky objects? Do you want to use it for astrophotography? Do you need to move it from A to B often? Do you have space to store it in your house, assembled or not? There are lots of things to consider. Things which others might not think of.

Telescopes also have different experience requirements. Some are usable right out of the box, whereas others are reserved for advanced users. A well-meaning gift can be too complex, causing the recipient frustration, or too basic, making it difficult for a budding astronomer to advance. Only you know your experience and/or patience level.

When so much money is being spent on telescopes, whether it is your own or not, there should be no compromises. You want something that will provide enjoyment on every clear night you can be outside. Here are some of our recommendations.

Cameras

A camera is another (and probably the most important) purchase in this guide that is best made by you, rather than guessed at by someone else. You want something that matches your skill level and ambition. Plus, photography is intensely personal, and it is difficult to buy a camera for someone else.

Each style of camera, and even each manufacturer, will have its own particular strengths. Ergonomics also matter. Button layouts and menu styles are a matter of personal preference. Specs like autofocus systems, number of megapixels and ISO handling will depend on the style of shooting. Even questions like how your computer handles image files are things only you will know the answer to (and the frustration of your computer not being able to cope!). If you're already a photographer with an ecosystem of lenses and accessories, you don't want to have to change that because someone thought they were doing the right thing by getting you an "upgrade".

Finally, it goes without saying that cameras are expensive. Buying your own camera gives you the exact tool to suit your vision as a photographer. Here are some of our recommendations for self-gifting.

Signing up for a spring marathon seems like a great idea, until the initial excitement wears off and you realise you’ll be slogging your way through your longest runs in the depths of January and February.

No block of marathon training is ever easy, but dealing with cold winds, icy conditions or just damp grey skies can be particularly tough. However, if you get the right kit and the right mindset, all that hard work through the coldest months will actually make race day itself feel like a breeze in comparison.

While you can't, alas, purchase the right mindset, you can certainly shop for the right kit. And when it comes to everything from the best Garmin watches for tracking your progress to the top treadmills for home training, we can help.

Get the right gear

Tackling cold-weather runs is all about having the right gear. That doesn't have to mean spending a fortune, or getting a whole new wardrobe — often, it's simply about combining the right layers.

There is an old adage that you should dress for a run like it’s 15-20 degrees warmer than it actually is, because, of course, you will warm up. But freezing conditions must be respected, too — particularly cold, biting winds, which can make you feel a lot colder. Good layers mean you can adjust as you run, peeling a layer off if you start getting too warm.

The place to start is with a really good base layer to wick the sweat away from your body. There's nothing worse than a sweaty layer in the cold, holding rapidly cooling sweat right next you. A soft, comfortable merino or merino-mix is the gold standard: Tracksmith's Brighton base layer is worth every penny.

In cold wind, rain or sleet, you’ll also probably need a good jacket — but unless you are dealing with truly extreme downpours, water-resistant may be better than waterproof. That's because the latter tends not to be very breathable, leaving you heating up inside a jacket that soon starts to feel like a portable oven.

Accessorize, accessorize

When you run in the cold, you may find that while your core and body warm up nicely, your extremities actually start to feel colder. Your circulatory system prioritises your hard-working lungs and legs, and the result can be frozen hands, faces, ears, even cold feet (literally, and sometimes also metaphorically). If you have bad circulation, it can be even worse.

A good headband or buff worn around the head can double up as a hairband, keeping hair out of your face,and also keeping your head and ears warm. If it’s really cold, a thicker fleece-like band or fleece-lined hat will help preserve warmth. You can also wear a few buffs: one around your head, one around your neck.

Getting the right gloves is also be a game-changer. Depending on how low the temperature drops, you may even double up with a thin inner glove worn under a thicker pair. Some people find that mitten-style gloves help their hands stay warmer, or wear a standard pair under mittens. Just make sure you have enough pocket or vest space to carry layers that start feeling too hot.

One thing to note is that, although it might seem more like a hot weather issue, many runners find that wearing multiple layers during winter training can actually lead to more skin chafing. Perhaps that's because the skin being rubbed has even less chance to breathe under layers than it does in warmer conditions.

The trouble is that once an area chafes, it seems to happen again and again. So try to avoid chafing in the first place, or stop it in its tracks early, by using Vaseline or other anti-chafe products, or even applying pre-emptive blister plasters.

Choosing the right shoes

Depending on where you run, you might not actually need to adjust your shoe choice to the weather. But if conditions are likely to be icy, snowy or very muddy, then you might want to look at trail shoes, which have a better grip.

Do try to make sure you’ve properly tested the shoes you plan to race in. The most important thing is comfort — what feels like a tiny hot spot or insignificant rubbing on a short run might become agony over a few hours.

Many people like to do the majority of their training runs in a comfortable, supportive, cushioned shoe, and save a carbon-plated race shoe for the day itself, but if you do this, make sure you have properly tested the latter as well. The same goes for all your race day kit: It might seem like a nice idea to treat yourself to brand new stuff for the big day, but you should never race in anything untested or new.

When it comes to buying running shoes, buy a pair that supports how you run, not how you would like to run, or because their looks appeal. Once you know what you are looking for, shop around — there are some great bargains available online.

We also have a guide to the best running shoes for supination (also known as under pronation).

Running indoors

There may well be days when running outside is either off-putting or perhaps even dangerous. It’s not worth risking slipping on black ice or running in risky conditions. That’s when either having your own treadmill or access to one in a gym can be a lifesaver.

However, treadmill running certainly brings its own challenges. It’s all very well doing a 40-50 minute run on a treadmill, but if your training plan calls for 2.5 hours, that is one epic slog! But it's doable, if you break it down (advice that also applies to outdoor runs, of course).

If, for example, your marathon training calls for two hours at an easy pace, break it up. Alternate between two paces every 20 minutes (or any other chunk of time that works for you). Even if the difference between the two paces is tiny, it's a mental trick that will make your training day seem less daunting. It's all about tricking yourself, even when you know you are doing it. Likewise, instead of dreading an hour on the treadmill, tell yourself you are doing 6 x 10 minutes. It sounds silly, but it does work.

If you do have to train a lot indoors, try to do some runs or sections of runs with a slight incline. This will have two effects: breaking up your run again, but also trying to replicate outdoor terrain, which, alas, is seldom pancake flat.

Many runners wonder if there is any difference between running on a treadmill and running outside. Both have their pros and cons, but if a treadmill keeps you running when you simply can't get outside safely, then it's a great option for you. And we've tested a huge array of them to find the best for all budgets and spaces.

If you develop a niggle during your training, you can also cross-train on another piece of cardio equipment — and don't neglect resistance training, which is a really important part of marathon training.

Warm up and refuel

Even after warming up in a hot shower or bath, you might still be feeling that cold. This is where having good post-run gear can help. Your sore, tired body will appreciate something soft and snuggly, like fleece layers or super soft sweatshirts and track pants. Wrapping yourself up in a heated blanket feels like heaven after winter runs.

Though the scientific evidence is fairly thin, many seasoned runners also swear by magnesium salts in a hot bath. You can also help speed up your recovery by using a foam roller or massage gun, though go easy on really sore muscles. Check out our guides to the best foam rollers and the best massage guns.

Train your head as well as your body

There will almost certainly be a point (or several) during your training runs when you despair, however momentarily, of ever being able to meet your race day goals. Everyone, regardless of their level, feels that at some point.

If it’s your first marathon, you might even doubt you’ll be able to complete it. Remind yourself that you are training not just physically, but mentally. If you can manage 20 miles into icy winds on a gray, dreary day by yourself or just with a friend or two, then 26.2 miles on race day — when you will be refreshed, fuelled, rested and supported by crowds — will honestly feel easier.

Every time you fight off the devil on your shoulder that tells you it's too cold, you're too tired or there are other things to do, and get out and run anyway, then you have built that little extra bit of resilience. It's easy to become all too focused on race day itself and forget about all the hard work you have put in during your training.

What makes every person unique? Part of the answer is in our genes.

A gene is a basic unit of heredity, the means by which traits get passed from one generation to the next, and genetics is the study of how these biological traits are inherited. A little over half of your genes are inherited from your mother, and just less than half come from your father. Your genes shape how you look, how your body functions, and how you grow and change over time.

Most genes are found in the nuclei of cells in the body. There, they are organized in threadlike structures called chromosomes, which are made of molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Human cells typically contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, and the human body contains more than 20,000 genes, in total. All of the genetic information in an organism is called a genome.

By sending instructions to structures in cells called ribosomes, genes prompt the cells to make specific proteins. This enables your cells to replicate, repair themselves, and perform specialized tasks.

Everything you need to know about genetics

Genetics glossary

• Clone – A genetically identical copy of a cell, tissue or organism. In mammals, natural clones happen when a fertilized egg splits in two. This produces twins with nearly identical DNA. Scientists have also created artificial clones of animals in laboratories.
• Stem cells – Special cells that can divide to form different types of cells. Embryonic stem cells, which are found only in embryos that are three to five days old, can make any type of cell in the body, including more embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells are more limited in the types of cells they produce.
• Gene variant – A version of a gene that differs among individuals or populations, due to changes in the gene's DNA sequence. The word "mutation" and "gene variant" are sometimes used interchangeably, as they both refer to such differences in genes. These differences can be neutral, in that they don't impact how a gene works, or they can change a gene's function for better or worse, making a disease more or less likely, for instance.
• Epigenetics – The study of how genes are changed by factors other than the DNA itself, such as the environment or behaviors. Epigenetic factors can affect how a gene works, turning it "on" or "off." This may increase or reduce the number of proteins a cell produces, thus affecting its function.

Genetics pictures

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On a clear night, the sky looks like a blanket of stars, but there is no blanket — just depth. You can see the bright stars and constellations with your naked eyes, and get a close-up of planets and nebulas with a telescope. In between, there exists a spectacular layer of objects that only binoculars can get you the best views of — from open clusters and small constellations to starfields and conjunctions.

The best stargazing binoculars are essential if you’re to properly progress as a skywatcher, with the best specs including 8x42, 7x50 and 10x50, all of which will give you a great view.

Here’s what to look at in a pair of binoculars from the Northern Hemisphere this August, September and October.

9 best things to see with binoculars between August to November 2025

The Summer Triangle and the Milky Way

If you’re under dark skies this summer in the Northern Hemisphere, you can’t miss the Milky Way streaming towards the southern horizon through the vast Summer triangle of three bright stars — Vega in the constellation Lyra, Deneb in Cygnus and Altair in Aquila. Even if light pollution hides the arc of the galaxy from you, you can still see rich starfields and nebula just by dragging your binoculars across the Summer Triangle, particularly between Deneb at the top-left and Altair closer to the horizon.

A ‘double planet’

This one requires an early start, but one of the closest planetary conjunctions has got to be worth it. About 45 minutes before sunrise on Aug. 12, 2025, in the eastern sky, Venus and Jupiter, the two planets — one inner and one outer — will appear to be less than a degree apart. Venus doesn’t look much in binoculars, thanks to its highly reflective global clouds. However, put any binoculars on Jupiter and you’ll see some of its four largest moons — Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. This sight of a “double planet” comes the morning before the night of the annual peak of the Perseids meteor shower. However, with a bright waxing gibbous moon, there’s little chance of seeing many.

The Coathanger

The Milky Way might stream through the Summer Triangle from Deneb to Altair, but go from Altair up to Vega, and you’ll see something a lot more subtle in a pair of binoculars. The Coathanger, also called Brocchi’s Cluster, is a small but obvious pattern of 10 stars in the shape of the household object. It’s easy to find, thanks to its placement against a relatively empty patch of the night sky.

The Arrow

It may be one of the smallest of the 88 official constellations in the night sky, but Sagitta, “The Arrow,” is a must-see for binocular observers. Not to be confused with the much more prominent Sagittarius, Sagitta is a simple pattern of four stars. It’s found close to the constellation Aquila; locate the bright star Altair in the Summer Triangle and look slightly above it.

The Dolphin

Here’s another small asterism close to the Summer Triangle that few know, but once you’ve explored it with your binoculars, you’ll forever see it with your naked eyes. The core of Delphinus, “The Dolphin,” is a diamond shape of four stars, but the marine animal quickly reveals itself. Altair in Aquila is once again the starting point; sweep your binoculars away from the Summer Triangle towards the Great Square of Pegasus, an unmissable shape of four bright stars. Delphinus is about halfway between the two.

Rise of A Full Moon

The sight of a full moon rising above the eastern horizon during dusk is a monthly highlight for sky-watchers with a pair of binoculars. On Saturday, Aug. 9 (Sturgeon Moon), Sunday, Sept. 7 (Corn Moon) and Tuesday, Oct. 7 (Hunter’s supermoon), research the exact time of moonrise for your location and be looking east a few minutes after. Be patient — it will appear — but it may take a touch longer if you have anything but an ocean horizon. It’s important to catch it at moonrise to see it glow a beautiful orange color.

The Summer Beehive Cluster

The Beehive Cluster (M44) is a fixture for binocular stargazers each spring in the Northern Hemisphere, but summer’s version rarely gets as much love despite being perfect for beginners. Also called IC 4665, it’s an open star cluster in the vast constellation Ophiuchus — close to the Summer Triangle — about 1,400 light years distant. It’s just north of the star Beta Ophiuchi and looks like a loose collection of about 30 stars in binoculars — much like M44.

Andromeda Galaxy

At 2.5 million light-years distant, the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) is the farthest object it’s possible to see with the naked eye. For that, an incredibly dark sky is required, while binoculars will give you a close-up, whatever your light pollution status. But finding it — particularly from a city — requires knowing where it is. Find the W-shaped constellation of Cassiopeia and identify the second V-shape. That’s your arrow to a bright star called Alpheratz at the corner of the “Great Square” of Pegasus. Rising in the southeast. M31 is about halfway between Cassiopeia and Alpheratz.

What you’ll see directly is a fuzzy blob of light. However, look just to its side and your peripheral vision will detect much more light coming from its nucleus across interstellar space — and into your eyes.

The Alpha Persei Moving Cluster

Binoculars will only restrict your view of “shooting stars” during the peak of the Perseid meteor shower on Aug. 12-13, but if you do have some to hand, take a closer look at the radiant constellation, Perseus. Focus on what’s around bright star Mirfak, dozens of young blue (and the occasional yellow) stars in a cluster called Melotte 20 or the Alpha Persei Moving Cluster. The latter name comes from the fact that these stars formed in the same nebula and are moving together through the Milky Way. You fit the entire cluster within the field of view of a pair of 10x50 binoculars.

Aging is the process of getting older. In biology, aging refers to how, over time, the cells in our bodies wear out or get damaged. They no longer work as well as they used to.

Some visible signs of aging include wrinkled skin; gray or white hair; and dark patches, called age spots, on the hands and face. But aging affects every part of the body, including the internal parts we can't see from the outside. Organ and tissue function, physical abilities and mental capacity all change as we age.

Some researchers say that aging starts even before birth, when an embryo's first cells form in the womb. In children and young people, damaged or dying cells are usually replaced pretty quickly. However, as people get older, it takes longer for their bodies to fix or replace those dysfunctional cells. The speed of aging and how it changes the body and brain can vary widely from person to person.

5 fast facts about aging

• As some men age, their eyebrows grow longer and bushier. Older men may also start growing long hairs on their ears and in their noses. This is because certain hormones in men increase with age, and stimulate unusual hair growth.
• Some people are "super-agers," which means their brains age more slowly than average. The brains of super-agers in their 80s resemble those of people who are decades younger.
• The world's oldest-known person was thought to be Jeanne Calment, a French woman who lived to be 122 years, 164 days old. But this is controversial, as some people think Calment's age records were fake.
• People often "shrink" as they get older. Between the ages of 30 and 70, it is normal to lose about 1 to 2 inches of height.
• Scientists still aren't sure how long a human could live under ideal circumstances. Some say 150 years old is the absolute limit, while others think it's likely even higher.

Everything you need to know about aging

Aging pictures

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• Can gray hair be reversed?
• Why do we shrink as we age?
• Why do hangovers get worse with age?

Hadrian's Wall served as the most northerly frontier of the Roman Empire for 300 years. The wall is located in northern England, runs for about 74 miles (118 kilometers) between Bowness-on-Solway in the west and Wallsend in the east.

Construction started around A.D. 122, after a visit to Britain by Emperor Hadrian (reign A.D. 117 to 138), who was determined to consolidate the Roman Empire's borders. England and Wales had both fallen to Roman control by A.D. 61 when the Iceni queen, Boudica, was defeated. Scotland, however, had successfully resisted Roman attempts at conquest thanks to a people called the "Caledonians" who thwarted attempts by Roman legions to take permanent control of the Scottish lowlands.

The wall was Hadrian's attempt to establish a defensible border between southern Britain and the unconquered north. Built using local materials by Roman soldiers from the II, VI and XX legions, the wall's initial fortifications were finished within a few years and were staffed mainly by auxiliary (non-Roman citizen) units.

The wall would have made a strong impression on the local people, to say the least.

"We have to envisage an area of Britain where there wasn't all that much stone building, certainly no monumental masonry, so it would have been a totally alien thing," Miranda Aldhouse-Green, an emeritus professor in the School of History, Archaeology and Religion at Cardiff University said in a 2006 BBC Timewatch documentary. "It would be like a visitation from another world and people would be gobsmacked by it."

How long is Hadrian's Wall?

Ancient history researcher Nic Fields noted that, when originally constructed, the eastern portion of the wall was built of stone and ran for 41 miles (65 km), ending at Newcastle upon Tyne. Eventually this was expanded further east to Wallsend. It measured about 10 feet (3 meters) wide and perhaps 15 feet (4.4 m) tall.

The western portion of the wall, on the other hand, was made of turf and extended for 29 miles (47 km), ending at Bowness-on-Solway. Its width was about 20 feet (5.9 m).

"Turf was a building material that was tried and tested and its use in the western sector might indicate a need for speed of construction," Fields wrote in his book, "Hadrian's Wall A.D. 122-410" (Osprey Publishing, 2003).

To the north of Hadrian's Wall was a V-shaped ditch, and to the south was another line of defense called the "vallum," which was constructed gradually. The vallum consisted of a ditch flanked by "large earth ramparts or mounds, according to Newcastle University archaeologist Rob Collins, who wrote "Hadrian's Wall and the End of Empire" (Routledge, 2012).

A milecastle, a small gateway that could house a few soldiers, was positioned about every mile of the wall. There were two turrets between each milecastle. In addition, large fortresses were built about every 7 miles (11 km) apart.

These fortresses were up to 9 acres (3.6 hectares) in size, were shaped like a "playing card," and had all the necessary support facilities.

"Important buildings such as the principia (headquarters building), praetorium (commanding officer's house), and horrea (granaries) were found in the central range, with the front and rear ranges containing barrack accommodation and other structures," Collins wrote.

Women at Hadrian's Wall

At Vindolanda fort, hundreds of wooden tablets with handwritten Latin writing have been unearthed, providing glimpses into the everyday lives of the soldiers stationed there. This particular fortress was in use before and during the time of Hadrian's Wall.

The texts reveal that senior military commanders at Vindolanda had wives, and the tablets reveal a correspondence between two women, Sulpicia Lepidina and Claudia Severa. The two were isolated by their sex and social status, and they may have been lonely.

"The letters between them deal with little things such as invitations to come and visit: Claudia, for example, invites Sulpicia to visit her on her birthday," Geraint Osborn wrote in his book, "Hadrian's Wall and its People" (Liverpool University Press, 2006).

"I give you a warm invitation to make sure that you come to us, to make the day more enjoyable for me by your arrival..." reads part of the invitation from Claudia (translation from "Vindolanda Tablets Online," Oxford University).

The wives of lower-ranking soldiers on Hadrian's Wall fortresses had to be more discreet.

"Men of lower ranks were forbidden to marry; they should have no ties to the area, so that they could be rapidly posted elsewhere," Osborn wrote. "However, whatever the prohibitions, ordinary soldiers did contract illegal marriages, often keeping wives and kids" in the civilian settlements adjacent to the fortresses."

Daily life at Hadrian's Wall

The same soil conditions at Vindolanda that preserved writing tablets also preserved leather goods from Roman times, providing new clues to the everyday lives of soldiers and their families.

More than 7,000 preserved leather items have been discovered at Vindolanda to date, including tent panels, saddles and bags, according to the Vindolanda Archaeological Leather Project. Most of these leather items are shoes of all shapes and sizes that belonged to men, women and children.

According to the project website, the shoes are "particularly important for our understanding of life in a military fort and settlement such as Vindolanda, because it was believed for a long time that military settlements were inhabited only by men."

Excavations at another fort along Hadrian's Wall, called Magna, produced some of the largest leather shoes ever seen at a Roman site. The eight XXL shoes are the equivalent of a men's size 14 US (size 13 UK). While the shoes might suggest that the soldiers at Magna were extraordinarily tall, another interpretation is that they were layering socks and sandals to keep out the bitterly cold and wet British weather.

Vindolanda has also surprised archaeologists with toy swords, which were likely used by soldiers' kids, as well as the first evidence that bedbugs hitched a ride with Roman legions to infest their settlements as they conquered Britain.

Hadrian's wall through time

As Rome's military position in Britain changed, so did the wall.

After Hadrian's death in A.D. 138, his successor Antoninus Pius (reign A.D. 138 to 161) adopted a radically different policy in Britain. He abandoned Hadrian's Wall and made a concerted effort to conquer the Scottish lowlands. After having some success, he built a new line of fortifications in Scotland known as Antonine's Wall.

Antoninus' conquest proved only temporary and, by the end of his reign, the Scottish fortifications were abandoned and Hadrian's Wall was reoccupied.

A series of modifications were then made to the wall, including the replacement of the turf portion in favor of stone and the construction of a road called the "military way" to the south of the wall. In addition, Collins noted, the turrets appear to have been decommissioned and the gateways of the milecastles narrowed.

As time went on, more changes occurred. In the fourth century, as the Roman Empire came under greater military pressure, Collins noted that the gates of the milecastles were narrowed further and some blocked off altogether.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth century and the beginning of the Dark Ages, the political landscape of Britain changed, and the wall became "politically redundant," Collins wrote. Its fortifications were quarried for stone, and some of them were used to help build England's medieval castles, which served as the country's new premier fortifications.

One particular spot along Hadrian's Wall has been a popular photography spot for decades: Sycamore Gap. A large sycamore tree grew next to the dramatic dip in the wall for over 150 years. In 2023, the tree was illegally felled, and the men responsible were charged with criminal damage to the tree and to Hadrian's Wall.

Editor's note: This piece was originally published on Nov. 1, 2012 and updated on Aug. 4, 2025 to include information about daily life at Hadrian's Wall and the sycamore tree that was illegally felled in 2023.

Dementia is a group of diseases that involve having trouble with memory, thinking, reasoning and other brain functions. It is often associated with "neurodegeneration," meaning processes that destroy brain cells and get worse over time. Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia, but there are other types.

Over 57 million people in the world currently have some form of dementia. People ages 65 and older are at higher risk for dementia than younger age groups, but the conditions can occur in younger people as well. As many as one-third of people 85 and older have some form of dementia, highlighting how the risk of the conditions rises with age, but not everyone develops them.

Dementia is diagnosed with a series of tests in combination with the patient's medical history. There are ways to manage the symptoms of dementia, but there is not yet a cure. Evidence suggests maintaining a healthy lifestyle may help to reduce the risk of developing dementia.

Everything you need to know about dementia

• Memory loss that disrupts daily life: forgetting new information and dates, or asking the same questions
• Challenges in planning or solving problems: trouble keeping track of bills, following recipes, or concentrating
• Difficulty completing familiar tasks: struggling with regular tasks, like remembering locations, grocery lists, or rules of a game
• Confusion with time or place: mixing up dates and locations
• Trouble understanding visual images and spatial relationships: changing vision, possibly leading to balance problems or poorly judging distances
• New problems with words in speaking or writing: difficulty following or joining a conversation
• Misplacing things and losing the ability to retrace steps: putting items in odd locations
• Decreased or poor judgment: struggling to make decisions or judging circumstances such as personal cleanliness
• Withdrawal from work or social activities: withdrawing from hobbies and activities
• Changes in mood and personality: becoming confused, suspicious, depressed, fearful or anxious

Dementia glossary

• Neurodegeneration — a gradual decline in the function of neurons and eventually loss, or death, of neurons.
• Neuron — a cell that sends and receives signals in the body and within the brain. Neurons use electrical and chemical signaling, which rely on proteins and neurotransmitters to help send the messages.
• Primary dementia — a progressive form of dementia in which symptoms get worse over time and the dementia itself is the core condition, rather than the dementia arising from a different underlying disease.
• Secondary dementia — a form of dementia associated with another disease, and therefore dementia is not the main ailment.

Dementia pictures

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• 'Look at all this we don't understand': Study unravels whole new layer of Alzheimer's disease
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The Ring of Fire is an enormous belt of active and dormant volcanoes that surrounds most of the Pacific Ocean. It runs from southern Chile, up the west coast of the Americas, through the islands off Alaska and down Japan to the Philippines. Some geologists also include an Indonesian chain of volcanoes in the ring.

These volcanoes arise because of subduction — the movement of a tectonic plate under a neighboring plate — which lowers the melting point of rock in the mantle. The rock turns to magma, rises to the surface and erupts as a volcano.

But the Ring of Fire does this subduction on a massive scale. "What's special about the Ring of Fire is that multiple oceanic plates in the Pacific have subduction boundaries there," Loÿc Vanderkluysen, a volcanologist at Drexel University in Philadelphia, told Live Science. About 90% of the 34,000 miles (55,000 kilometers) of subduction plate boundaries on Earth are found in the Pacific, Vanderkluysen explained.

This tectonic movement also causes earthquakes. When one plate is forced underneath another, "there's lots of kicking and screaming as the plates grind against one another," Jeffrey Karson, a professor emeritus of tectonics at Syracuse University in New York, told Live Science. "And so that's where the biggest earthquakes on our planet take place."

The Ring of Fire contains about 75% of Earth's active volcanoes and is where 90% of measured earthquakes occur.

What's in a name?

The name Ring of Fire is hotly contested among researchers. "Many scientists hate the term," Vanderkluysen said. For one, it's not actually a complete ring. The volcanoes follow the edges of tectonic plates, which only subduct on the north, east and west of the Pacific.

Also, some areas of the ring have no volcanism at all, such as Peru and central Chile.

In addition, the Ring of Fire includes more than 450 volcanoes in distinct regions. And they all differ in their magma production, storage and the positioning of their subducting plate, Vanderkluysen said.

"Each [volcano] has its own individual history and flavor that, from a research perspective, is more effective to study individually rather than trying to link all the Ring of Fire volcanoes together that are otherwise not geologically linked," he said.

Related: Sleeping subduction zone could awaken and form a new 'Ring of Fire' that swallows the Atlantic Ocean

Some experts believe that the term has taken on a false meaning in popular culture, with the implication that it's one big structure, Erik Klemetti, a volcanologist at Denison University in Granville, Ohio, told Live Science. "It works nicely as a way to describe the fact that there are an awful lot of volcanoes along the edge of the Pacific," he said, but the ring is just "a geographic coincidence of our current moment on Earth."

One big misconception is "the catastrophist notion that all volcanoes in the Ring of Fire are interconnected and that an eruption or earthquake in one location can trigger the whole region with dramatic consequences," Vanderkluysen said. While it's clear to scientists that an eruption in Japan will not trigger an eruption in Chile, for example, the term is sometimes used to suggest that it's possible, he said.

"An immense natural laboratory for volcanism"

Research into the Ring of Fire spreads across many fields. About two-thirds of the volcanoes that have erupted on Earth since 1960 were in the ring, so "just due to sheer numbers, the Pacific region is an immense natural laboratory for volcanism, and explosive volcanism in particular," Vanderkluysen said.

Volcanologists can use data from the ring to learn about the various eruptions that happen there. "Some are steady and erupt without massive build-ups, and others erupt sporadically but catastrophically," Robert Butler, who studies plate tectonics at the University of Aberdeen, told Live Science in an email.

The different kinds of plate interactions in the Pacific serve as "test beds" for learning what leads to different types of eruptions, Klemetti explained.

Klemetti hopes Ring of Fire research will eventually reveal the inner workings of volcanoes that take place miles below sea level. In the next 10 or 20 years, he thinks scientists can learn about where and how magma is stored between eruptions, how long it takes for magma to heat up and understand more about the transition from dormancy to eruption.

Seismologists also study the Ring of Fire, as more than 80% of earthquakes with a magnitude of 8.0 or higher have occurred there. Researchers can investigate quakes in the Ring of Fire to learn more about how the stress builds up in subduction zones before powerful earthquakes, Butler said.

The vast amount of data helps scientists differentiate between types of extreme events and their causes. "It's a general problem we need to sort in geology, the differences between frequent, not too serious events, and those that occur infrequently but are super-devastating," Butler said.

Analyzing volcanoes and earthquakes in the Ring of Fire can help scientists to improve extreme hazard prediction for volcanic eruptions. Scientists estimate that 800 million people — about 10% of the world's population — live within 62 miles (100 kilometers) of an active volcano. "In the future, there will be large volcanic eruptions that might happen close to population centers and might have impacts at the global scale," Marc-Antoine Longpré, a volcanologist at CUNY Graduate Center, told Live Science.

Earthquakes in the ring, and resulting tsunamis, are also of great concern. Researchers could use earthquake data from the Ring of Fire to develop early warning systems or forecasting tools, Vanderkluysen said.

US volcano quiz: How many can you name in 10 minutes?

Shark Week 2025 is almost here, offering new shows full of thrills to celebrate its 37th year. Once again, we've put together a handy guide on how to watch Shark Week 2025, including air times, where you can watch, and the standout shows worth keeping an eye on.

Despite recent years having big names like Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson and Jason Momoa on board to lead the proceedings, it appears Discovery is going with a leaner (and hopefully meaner) approach in 2025. Shark Week has been around since 1988, and it's meant to help us celebrate and understand these beautiful creatures, rather than build up fear.

We'll admit it hasn't always lived up to that mantra, but these days Discovery does a good job of showing sharks to the world while ramping up the fun factor for the most part.

The hottest shows lined up to chomp on during Shark Week 2025 include "Dancing with Sharks" — a new Shark Week special — and "Air Jaws: The Hunt for Colossus" (now that's a wild title).

When is Shark Week 2025?

• July 20 – July 26

Shark Week 2025 starts on July 20 (Sunday) and runs until July 26 (Saturday).

The official kick-off takes place on Sunday, July 20, at 8 p.m. ET/PT on Discovery, with the content also available to stream on HBO Max.

"Dancing With Sharks" — hosted by Emmy Award-winning TV personality Tom Bergeron — will lead the charge, but Discovery's full July 20 schedule suggests a substantially larger offering of shark-related shows throughout the whole day.

Where to watch Shark Week 2025: TV & Streaming

Shark Week airs exclusively in the US on the Discovery Channel, which is available on most cable TV services.

If you want to watch Discovery but don't have traditional cable, you can get it via the new wave of "cord-cutting" streaming platforms, which offer cable channels in an online subscription package.

Sling TV is one of the best, with Discovery on the Blue package for $45 per month – half price for your first month. You can also watch Discovery on Hulu + Live TV, DirecTV Stream, and YouTube TV.

To watch on demand, you can get Shark Week content on HBO Max, ($9.99 per month), which is Discovery’s main streaming platform since the Warner Media-Discovery merger in 2022.

We also believe Discovery+ will offer the full Shark Week 2025 offerings at a later date. As far as we know, you can watch most of 2024's Shark Week content on there.

How to watch Shark Week outside the US

Shark Week 2025 is only airing live in the U.S.

If you're stuck abroad during Shark Week and can't access one of the above streaming options in your current location, we have a solution for you: a VPN.

A Virtual Private Network will allow you to access geo-restricted content by bouncing your connection to a server based in that country. This means that you can access all of your U.S.-based streaming services no matter where you are in the world.

There are many VPN services out there, but NordVPN is the best all-round option, according to our expert colleagues at Tom's Guide, and it's a good time to take out a subscription.

Offer applies in the US, Canada, and UK. To take advantage, follow the deal, select a discounted two-year plan, and the four-month bonus will be added automatically to your selection. Once you've taken out the plan and reached the end of the 30-day free trial period, your Amazon gift card (amount depends on selected plan) will land in your inbox.

Shark Week 2025 schedule

Below you can find the full Shark Week 2025 schedule, which includes every big show airing during Shark Week plus the dates & times to catch them live. All of them can be watched on HBO Max any time after the air date. More shark-related shows will be part of the complete Discovery schedule throughout Shark Week.

“Jaws vs. Mega Croc”

Right after “Great White Sex Battle,” we highly recommend not skipping the silly-sounding but somewhat compelling “Jaws vs. Mega Croc,” which gives viewers “a CGI fight to the death between two of the biggest and baddest apex predators in the water — the great white shark and Nile crocodile.

► 9pm ET/PT on Monday, July 21.

"Great White Sex Battle"

"In a Shark Week first, male and female great white sharks compete in a series of challenges to determine which sex is the superior predator in the waters off the coast of New Zealand," the press release says.

► 8pm ET/PT on Monday, July 21.

"Air Jaws: The Hunt for Colossus"

If you're into shows and documentaries following researchers around as they chase a specific animal of mighty proportions and/or special skills, you should be interested in "Air Jaws: The Hunt for Colossus," which, as you might expect, focuses on the search for a great white shark known as "Colossus" who has been missing for years.

► 9pm ET/PT on Sunday, July 20.

"Dancing With Sharks"

Hosted by Emmy winner (and former "Dancing With the Stars" host) Tom Bergeron, "Dancing With Sharks" is a brand-new Shark Week 2025 special that features "an unprecedented underwater dance competition between expert divers and their shark partners," which is something we don’t see often.

► 8pm ET/PT on Sunday, July 20.

Discovery has adjusted recent Shark Weeks to a 20-hour format which might feel a bit small for some viewers, but there’s plenty of exciting and informative programming to watch every day of the event. We suggest carefully studying the full schedule — straight from Discovery — that we shared above, but we’ve picked out some potential standouts leading the pack that you should keep an eye on.

Shark Week 2025: Best shows to watch

What is Shark Week?

Shark Week 2025 is a week-long extravaganza of original content about, you guessed it, sharks.

Shark Week was originally created to spread awareness about conservation efforts and correct misconceptions about sharks in a post "Jaws" world. Over time, however, it grew in popularity and became a recurring hit for Discovery. As a result, more entertainment-oriented and sometimes fictional programming took over.

By the 2010s, criticism of its most dramatic programs, many of which hurt the reputation of sharks, led to professionals in the science blogger community as well as scientists calling for a boycott of the network.

As accusations of junk science and fake stories piled up, Discovery vowed in 2015 to remove this type of programing from future Shark Week lineups. While dubious shows like "Megalodon: The Monster Shark Lives" are rarer nowadays, you can tell from the spicy titles that even the most scientifically accurate programs are designed to attract as many eyes as possible.

Shark Week also offers more than just shows. There’s now a podcast — captained by environmental journalist and comedian Kasha Patel — to listen to. Discovery is also highlighting plenty of educational shark-centric articles, facts, and videos to get people interested in these animals.

We test and review VPN services in the context of legal recreational uses. For example: 1. Accessing a service from another country (subject to the terms and conditions of that service). 2. Protecting your online security and strengthening your online privacy when abroad. We do not support or condone the illegal or malicious use of VPN services. Consuming pirated content that is paid-for is neither endorsed nor approved by Future Publishing.

If you are training for a marathon, or indeed any other race, the bulk of your training miles will be run at an easy pace. Race day might be haunting your dreams from the moment you sign up, but training for a marathon, particularly your first, largely involves running slowly. The goal is to gently build up the amount of time you spend running, until 26.2 miles doesn’t seem so daunting.

To support that, you will therefore need a good pair of everyday running shoes that suit you. Then, you might also want a pair of "fast" shoes for race days — perhaps a pair of carbon-plated "super shoes". And finally, you might think about shoes designed to boost your recovery. Sounds like a lot to invest in? No need to worry. Right now, you can save up a lot of money on running shoes in the Amazon Prime Day sale.

It's important, of course, to choose the right shoes for you. If you overpronate or underpronate (or supinate), you might need a pair with extra support in the right places. It is always worth having your gait analysed at a running shop to check, even if you buy online.

Of course, running isn't just about the shoes. There’s a lot of other kit that you can invest in, and we have reviews of everything from the very best Garmin watches to the top treadmills for home training. And don't forget that an important part of training for a running race is to build your strength with resistance training. You can also help your running by cross-training on another piece of cardio equipment

Everyday running shoes

When it comes to training for any race distance, it a generally accepted and sensible rule of thumb that 80% of your miles should be easy, with 20% (at most) harder. These harder efforts might include interval training or tempo running.

So for the majority of your runs, you need a pair of shoes that are best suited to easy-paced miles, and which will offer you enough cushioning to protect your muscles and joints from impact, without feeling heavy or too slow.

Some people like to buy two pairs of such shoes, different models or different brands, and rotate between them. The initial outlay might be more, but you should get twice as long before you need to buy another pair. The idea here is that the slightly different mechanics of the two different pairs might just help stave off an overuse injury from doing the same thing in the same shoes, over and over again.

If you are a neutral runner, then one of the best all-purpose, all-rounder shoes for your everyday training is the New Balance 1080. Now on its 14th version for a good reason, this is a comfortable, well-designed shoe that offers great value for money, and should see you through hundreds of miles of running.

It has plenty of cushioning but is still pretty lightweight, so that you never feel the cushioning is weighing you down. Indeed, although this is designed as a “high mileage” everyday running shoe, the 1080 is light and responsive enough that it can also cope with you picking up the pace on a tempo run.

With a plush upper that hugs your feet without weighing them down, this is a shoe that feels incredibly comfortable from the moment you first slip it on. It has enough grip to cope with wet pavements and even some light trail (such as gravel paths in a park) and wears extremely well.

Other everyday shoes

• Asics Novablast 5
• Hoka Mach
• Puma Velocity Nitro 3

Race day shoes

Since the introduction of carbon plates to running shoes with Nike’s Vaporfly 4% in 2016, the world of race shoes has been transformed. But what super shoes once offered only to elite runners is now mainstream at amateur races, too. The point of the carbon plate is to act as a kind of spring, driving you forwards — and evidence certainly suggests that they can benefit amateurs too.

Amateur runners wearing supershoes can get benefits in running economy, compared to running in traditional shoes. Strava data also shows that runners in super shoes tend to complete races 4-5% faster than those in normal shoes, even when adjusted for training and ability.

All of which means, for the amateur, that if you really care about that marathon race, and you can afford them (super shoes are more expensive than other running shoes) then it might well be worth paying for a pair. But with every brand claiming theirs is best, which one?

In recent years, Puma has revolutionised its running shoe lineup, redesigning everything from everyday shoes like the Deviate Nitros to its latest carbon-plated racer, the Fast-R Deviate Nitro Elite 3.

Puma has shared research on just how much its shoe can help you on race day. A study, conducted at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, by the same professor who conducted the original study on the first super shoe (the Nike Vaporfly) says that the Fast-R Nitro Elite 3 provides a 3.15% improvement on the previous Puma version (the Elite 2).

That might not sound like a huge figure, but for a four-hour marathoner, a 3.15% saving would equate to taking over 7 mins 43 secs off your time, without any extra effort. In fact, of all the 15 different shoes tested, the Fast-R 3 was found to have the best running economy.

So what are they like to run in? If you have worn super shoes before, you’ll be familiar with that "forward momentum" feeling that the carbon plate gives you. If you haven’t, it takes a little getting used to, though many are soon addicted to the feeling.

These shoes may look super high-stacked, but they weigh in at a featherlight 147 g/170 g (womens US 7.5 and mens 8). The upper is — again, as is common with racing shoes now — very thin, with a barely-there tongue and minimal padding. Sure, it won’t offer the same security and comfort as a standard training shoe like the NB1080 v14. But you won’t find a super shoe that does.

What you will get is a shoe that seems tailor-made to marathon pace running. That feeling of running on a springboard makes runs just seem easier, and staying on target pace for a marathon more achievable.

Like all race shoes, the main drawback is potentially two-fold. Firstly, some runners do find that the very different mechanics that super shoes encourage may lead to different types of aches and pains. Secondly, they are expensive. But if you save them for race day, can afford them, and really value that PR, then they will be worth it for you.

Other race shoes

• Nike Vaporfly 4
• Adidas Adizero Pro 4
• Hoka Cielo X1 2.0

Recovery shoes

Recovery is an important part of training. It’s not just time off — it’s when your body adapts and recovers from the efforts you’ve put it through, making you a better runner. View recovery not as an absence of running, but as a positive part of your training. That might include taking stretching seriously, and doing strengthening exercises for any aches or muscle tightness you are prone to.

You can also use a foam roller to help reduce the symptoms of DOMS (the pain and stiffness you can get after a workout). Studies show that while their effect on performance itself may be negligible, rollers certainly can help relieve pain from sore muscles. You can read our full guide to foam rollers here, and also check out our guide to the best massage guns.

Recovery can also include another, rather different pair of shoes.

OOFOS recovery shoes are designed to help your recovery by giving you support all through your foot, from the heel to the forefoot, but with a lovely cushioned bouncy comfort. They look a little like a pumped-up slider, with a big wedge of cushioned foam to support your tired and aching feet.

There is absolutely nothing better than unlacing (possibly with help) after a marathon and sliding your feet into a pair of OOFOS. It feels like giving your a feet a big "well done" hug. But you don’t need to save them for race day, because these are robust shoes that you can wear after your long runs, hard efforts or just when you feel like you need a little foot TLC.

Their proprietary foam absorbs 37% more impact than your standard post-run sliders, and they cradle your arches but also promote a more natural foot posture. Many runners with plantar fasciitis have, anecdotally, found them helpful too.

The San Andreas Fault is California's longest and most famous fault. At this fracture zone, two plates of Earth's crust move past each other. It stretches from the Salton Sea in Southern California to off the coast of Mendocino in Northern California. On the inland side of the fault, the North American Plate moves southeast. Toward the coast, the Pacific Plate creeps northwest.

The San Andreas is capable of creating big, destructive earthquakes. Earthquakes are measured in magnitude on a scale that starts at zero. In this scale, each whole number represents an earthquake 10 times as large as the one before it. Most earthquakes under magnitude 2.5 aren't felt, while 2.5- to 5.4- magnitude quakes usually cause some shaking but not much damage. Quakes of 5.5 magnitude and higher cause damage to buildings, and earthquakes over 7.0 are considered major.

In 1906, the northern section of the fault shook San Francisco and the Bay Area with a 7.9 magnitude quake, which caused a devastating fire in the city and killed more than 3,000 people, according to the U.S. Geological Survey. In 1857, the southern section of the fault shook and created a quake thought to be just as large. Only two people died, because California had a tiny population at the time. Geologists warn that the San Andreas will give off a large earthquake again — the only question is when.

5 fast facts about the San Andreas Fault

• Over the past 3 million years, the San Andreas Fault has moved an average of 2 inches (56 mm) per year.
• If that rate continues, Los Angeles and San Francisco will be next-door neighbors in 15 million years!
• The 1857 Fort Tejon quake on the southern San Andreas Fault lasted between one and three minutes.
• During the 1906 Great San Francisco earthquake, 296 miles (477 km) of the fault moved.
• The San Andreas Fault was discovered just 11 years before the 1906 earthquake by geologist Andrew Lawson, who worked at the University of California, Berkeley.

Everything you need to know about the San Andreas Fault

San Andreas Fault pictures

Discover more about earthquakes

• Why can earthquakes happen far from plate boundaries?
• The 20 largest recorded earthquakes in history
• Nearly 75% of the U.S. is at risk from damaging earthquakes

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a germ that causes a lifelong infection that slowly weakens the immune system. Though the infection is lifelong, medicines can keep the virus in check and help people reach lifespans of near-normal length.

However, when people don't have access to those medicines, HIV infections progress to an advanced stage called acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is fatal within about three years if not treated. When a person has AIDS, most of their key, disease-fighting immune cells are lost. This loss of immune protection leaves the person vulnerable to deadly infections and cancers.

Although an HIV diagnosis was once a death sentence, scientists have developed treatments that suppress the virus and enable people to live long lives without transmitting the disease to others. Additionally, there are now effective preventive medications that can dramatically reduce the risk of getting HIV in the first place.

There is not yet a widespread cure for HIV/AIDS, although a handful of people have been cured of the infection or are in long-term remission thanks to special stem-cell transplants, specially cell transplants from people who have genes that make them resistant to the virus. Scientists are exploring potential avenues for a cure, which could someday mean that people who contract HIV could be rid of the infection rather than having to take medication for life to manage the disease.

HIV/AIDS remains a major public health threat worldwide, with an estimated 39.9 million people living with the disease at the end of 2023. Around 630,000 people died from illnesses related to AIDS the same year; by weakening the immune system, AIDS opens the door to these fatal diseases.

Everything you need to know about HIV

Glossary

• Antiretroviral therapy (ART) – Combinations of medications that lower the amount of HIV in a person's blood. These drugs, given as pills or shots, prevent the viral infection from progressing to AIDS and dramatically lower a person's risk of complications and of transmitting the virus to others.
• Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) – Medicines that people at risk of being exposed to HIV take to prevent the infection.
• Viral load – The amount of HIV in a person's blood. This is measured in terms of the number of HIV RNA molecules — the virus's genetic material — found in a milliliter of blood. It's an important way to measure how well ART is working.
• Viral suppression – When a person's viral load falls to 200 copies/mL or lower. Viral suppression is the goal of ART, as it both lowers a person's likelihood of spreading the virus and extends their lifespan by preventing the infection from progressing to AIDS.
• CD4 T lymphocyte – A type of white blood cell that helps coordinate the actions of other immune cells to fight infections. HIV infects CD4 cells and uses them to multiply while the virus depletes the number of CD4 cells in the body.

HIV/AIDS pictures

Discover more about HIV

• We could end the AIDS epidemic in less than a decade. Here's how.
• In a 1st, HIV vaccine triggers rare and elusive antibodies in humans
• Nearly 3 million extra deaths by 2030 could result from HIV funding cuts, study suggests

The sun is the star at the center of our solar system. It's the largest, brightest and most massive object in the solar system, and it provides the light and heat that life on Earth depends on. Powered by a process called nuclear fusion, the sun can get hotter than 27 million degrees Fahrenheit (15 million degrees Celsius). The sun has been around for over 4 billion years, but one day, it will run out of fuel. Read on to learn more about what our local star is made of, how it formed and what will happen when it dies.

5 fast facts about the sun

• Over 1 million Earths could fit inside the sun.
• The sun may look yellow from Earth, but it actually releases every color of light, meaning its true color is white.
• The sun is unique in that it's the only star in our solar system. Up to 85% of stars have at least one companion star.
• The sun contains over 99% of the mass of our entire solar system.
• Like Earth, the sun also rotates on its axis. Each rotation takes about 27 Earth days.

Everything you need to know about the sun

The sun pictures

Discover more about the sun

• Is Earth getting closer to the sun, or farther away?
• Where on Earth does the sun rise first?
• What color is the sun?

Editor's note: This story was updated on March 18, 2026 to include the most recent estimate of the sun's age.

By some estimates, the average person spends about one-third of their lives sleeping (or trying to sleep). Sleep is a resting state for the brain and body that occurs at regular intervals, and getting enough sleep is essential for maintaining good health.

When a person is asleep, their core body temperature drops. Heart rate and breathing also slow down and overall metabolic activity decreases by about 10%. A sleeping body may seem inactive at first glance, with the brain relatively unresponsive to external stimuli. But in reality, a sleeping brain is a busy brain. Sleep enables the brain to perform essential repairs and maintenance tasks, building connections between cells that optimize the brain's performance when awake. Dreaming during sleep is thought to help the brain organize and stabilize memories, as well as process and store information.

Sleep also enables the body to repair and replenish cellular material that is damaged or depleted. Important bodily functions such as the production of hormones, tissue growth and muscle repair, for example, occur mostly while we are asleep, and a system that flushes toxins and waste from the brain is most active in sleep.

Everything you need to know about sleep

Sleep glossary

• Circadian rhythm – The internal clock that your body follows during a 24-hour period, moving between alertness and rest in response to changes in light. Circadian rhythms regulate eating habits and other behaviors and bodily functions, in addition to the cycle of sleeping and waking.
• Parasomnia – Disruptive events or behaviors that interfere with restful sleep. These may include sleepwalking, talking during sleep, sleep-related eating disorders, sleep paralysis or intense and vivid nightmares called night terrors.
• Microsleep – A temporary episode of sleep lasting for a few seconds, followed by a swift return to wakefulness. This is sometimes referred to as "nodding off," and is most likely to occur after sleep deprivation. Microsleeping can be dangerous if it takes place during certain activities, such as driving or operating heavy machinery.
• Sleep debt – The difference between the amount of quality sleep that one requires in order to feel well-rested, and the amount of sleep one actually gets. Accumulated, chronic sleep debt can have lasting health impacts, even after the person "catches up" on their missed sleep.

Sleep pictures

Discover more about sleep

• Why am I always tired if I get enough sleep?
• Early study reveals why sleeping pills may not supply the best-quality snooze
• Sleep technique used by Salvador Dalí really works

This article is for informational purposes only and is not meant to offer medical advice.

Science of sleep quiz: How much do you know about sleep and dreams?

More than half of all known animal species on Earth are insects — critters with a hard external skeleton, three pairs of jointed legs, antennae and a body divided into three segments (the head, thorax and abdomen). There are about 1.4 billion insects for every human on the planet, and their combined weight is 70 times that of all people. Insects are found on every continent and in almost every habitat type, including hot deserts, salty coastal waters and frigid mountain streams. While 97% of insects live on land, some thrive in fresh water and seawater.

5 fast facts about insects

• More than 1 million insect species have been described so far, but scientists estimate there could be up to 30 million we haven't discovered yet.
• Insects are the only invertebrates (creatures without a backbone) to have wings. Most insects have two pairs of wings, but some — including fleas, ants and lice — have no wings.
• Parasites can transform insects into real-life zombies. Infected insects do what the parasite wants, which can be to go up to a predator to be eaten or jump into a pool of water where the insect will drown.
• Many insects are cannibals. For example, female praying mantises may attack and eat males during or after they mate.
• Bees and moths pollinate plants, which helps give us food. But harmful pesticides are leading to large declines in these insects' numbers.

Everything you need to know about insects

Insect pictures

Discover more about insects

• These insects keep evolving to look like sticks. Why?
• How do insects know which flowers have pollen?
• Why are insects attracted to artificial lights?

Further reading

• "Rise of the Zombie Bugs: The Surprising Science of Parasitic Mind-Control"
• "The Jewel Box: How Moths Illuminate Nature's Hidden Rules"
• Discover fun facts about insects at the Smithsonian Institution and learn more from the Australian Museum about how scientists categorize insects.

E.T., Stitch, Chewbacca, Groot — humans have a lot of ideas about what aliens might look like. But what is the science behind extraterrestrial life? Is it possible that humans will ever experience "first contact" with an alien species?

Many scientists hope so. They're looking for extraterrestrial life on planets with conditions that look like Earth's. A life-friendly planet would probably have water, for example. And for water to be a liquid, the planet must be the perfect distance from its sun for that water not to freeze or turn into a gas.

There's no evidence yet for life on other planets, but as scientists discover more and more planets outside our solar system, they're hopeful that some of these worlds will be "just right" for life to exist or evolve there.

5 fast facts about aliens

• Scientists have been listening for alien signals with special radio receivers since 1992. They haven't picked up any yet!
• Mars might have once hosted life — most likely tiny things like bacteria — but scientists can't say for sure.
• Jupiter's moon Europa has an ocean, and it might have hydrothermal vents, or cracks in the seafloor where hot water seeps through. Scientists think life on Earth may have evolved in hydrothermal vents.
• The "Goldilocks zone" is the space around a star where temperatures allow liquid water to exist. Many scientists think planets in the Goldilocks zone are those most likely to host life.
• The oldest known life on Earth is 4.2 billion years old.

Everything you need to know about aliens

Alien pictures

Discover more about aliens

• What could aliens look like?
• What's the best evidence we've found for alien life?
• Are aliens real?

The moon is our constant companion and the only natural object that always orbits Earth. It's about four times smaller than Earth and its gravity is much weaker, which is why astronauts bounce around on it like a trampoline. But even though our moon is relatively small, it still has a big effect on our planet. The moon is why our oceans have tides, and it may even help stabilize Earth's tilt and rotation, keeping the lengths of our days and seasons the same. Read on to learn more fascinating facts about the moon.

5 fast facts about the moon

• The moon's orbit isn't a perfect circle. Instead, it's more stretched out, kind of like an oval, which means its distance from Earth varies by about 30,000 miles (48,000 km).
• The surface of the moon is rusting. It's turning redder as Earth's atmosphere interacts with iron in the soil.
• NASA has spotted water on the moon.
• The same side of the moon always faces Earth.
• Scientists have grown plants in moon dirt from the Apollo missions.

Everything you need to know about the moon

Moon pictures

Discover more about the moon

• Will Earth ever lose its moon?
• Why can't we see the far side of the moon?
• Why can we sometimes see the moon in the daytime?

If you want to take your stargazing to the next level, a pair of binoculars is the way to go. With a little magnification, it’s possible to access another level of the night sky, revealing open clusters of stars, the Milky Way and detail on the surface of the moon.

Armed with a pair of the best stargazing binoculars (we recommend anything above 10x50 for astronomy), here’s what to look at from the Northern Hemisphere between May and July.

If you want to get even closer to the night sky, the best telescopes will give you that extra bit of power.

9 best things to see with binoculars between May to July 2025

Beehive Cluster (M44)

A classic spring binocular target, the Beehive Cluster lies in the constellation Cancer, between Leo and Gemini, and will be sinking in the west after sunset during May and June. Perhaps the most beautiful star cluster to see through a pair of binoculars, M44 displays hundreds of stars.

Mars and Regulus

Prep your binoculars for a special sight after dark on Monday, June 16, and Tuesday, June 17, 2025, when the red planet and bright star shine close together. Reddish-golden Mars and whitish Regulus in the constellation Leo will shine at almost equal brightness in the west after sunset, with the colorful duo less than the width of an outstretched finger apart.

Noctilucent clouds

Come late June's solstice, those in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere struggle for astronomical darkness. However, the sun not going far enough below the horizon to create full darkness does have an advantage. Web-like noctilucent or "space” clouds, which form from ice crystals on meteor dust high in Earth's atmosphere, can often be seen late at night in northern skies in June and July. Their eerie structure, reflecting sunlight at the edge of space, looks fabulous in binoculars.

A crescent moon and Mars

The moon is always a fabulous object in binoculars, not least when it's a delicate crescent. However, on Sunday, June 29, 2025, the 23% waxing crescent moon will closely visit Mars, with the duo as close as a mere fifth of a degree from each other. This close conjunction will occur shortly after sunset in the west and sink into the horizon before too long, so don't waste time. Put your binoculars on the crescent and study the long shadows on the terminator — the dividing line between light and dark — as well as the reflected light on its dark face, called "Earthshine," before moving to the upper left to Mars.

The Summer Triangle and the Milky Way

One of the anchors of the Northern Hemisphere night sky from June through November is the Summer Triangle, a simple shape created by three bright stars — Vega in the constellation Lyra, Deneb in Cygnus and Altair in Aquila. Point your binoculars at Deneb and drag them down to Alatir, and you'll be looking at the rich starfields of the Milky Way as it streams down to the horizon.

The Great Globular Cluster in Hercules (M13)

At its best in July is this famous globular cluster — a dense ball of as many as half a million ancient stars that are almost as old as the universe itself. Also called M13 and appearing as a fuzzy patch in a pair of binoculars (the bigger, the better), first find Hercules's keystone — four stars forming a diamond shape between the bright stars Vega and Arcturus.

The Teapot's Steam

It may sound like a whimsical sight, but find this target, and you've reached Galactic Central Point — the center of the Milky Way. Although it's a famous constellation of summer in the Northern Hemisphere, most people will struggle to find Sagittarius, the archer.

It's best found by looking not for the shape of a person, but for a teapot formed of eight bright stars. Trace out its shape with your naked eyes before planting a pair of binoculars on its spout. Range up to see fabulously rich starfields — the "steam" from the Teapot is one of the night sky's most beautiful summer sights.

A full moon rising

The once-a-month sight of a full moon appearing on the horizon at dusk is unmissable for sky-watchers, and there's only one tool you need to get the very best from it — a pair of binoculars. Find out the dates of the full moon and be somewhere looking east at the exact time of moonrise for your location. That way, you'll see it glowing orange as it appears, rather than the glaring white orb it will become as it rises higher into the sky.

Sagittarius Cluster (M22)

Once you've found the Teapot, it's time to explore around it. There are many sights to see in its vicinity — including the Lagoon, Trifid and Omega nebulas — but a great target for binocular users is the Sagittarius Cluster, also called M22. A globular cluster like M13, this one is about 10,400 light-years distant and also looks like a fuzzy patch in binoculars. Find it above the Teapot's handle.

Plants are an incredibly diverse group of organisms, ranging from tiny algae to majestic redwood trees. Plants have colonized nearly every environment on Earth, evolving ways to thrive in blistering deserts, salty coastlines and dripping rainforests. They support most life on Earth because they sit at the base of almost every food chain and pump out the oxygen we need to breathe.

Most plants have green leaves, and many have beautiful-smelling flowers that come in many sizes and every color of the rainbow.

Plants often rely on wind, water and animals (like bees, butterflies or birds — known as pollinators) to reproduce. To do so, plants transfer pollen from a male flower to a female flower. This process creates a seed, which then grows into a new plant that gets half its genes from the male "parent" and half from the female "parent." Some plants make more of themselves without this transfer process, creating a new plant that's essentially a clone of itself, meaning it carries all the same genes as its parent.

5 fast facts about plants

• Plants can communicate with each other by releasing chemicals when they are under attack.
• Despite not having brains, some plant species can "remember" things from the past and react accordingly.
• Some plants, like Venus flytraps, eat animals like flies or frogs.
• There are around 390,000 plant species in the world.
• Plants first evolved in the water, and then started growing on land about 400 million years ago.

Everything you need to know about plants

Plant pictures

Discover more about plants

• Where did the 1st seeds come from?
• Why do leaves change color in the fall?
• Why is grass green?

Electric vehicles (EVs) are cars with engines powered by electricity rather than the combustion engines found in gasoline-powered cars.

Across the world, traditional manufacturers are adding EVs to their product lineups, as well as improving battery technology and vehicle range. In many markets, EVs are now cheaper to operate than traditional gasoline-powered vehicles, though upfront costs are higher. And EVs are only expected to get cheaper. But how do these vehicles work, are they really better for the environment than traditional cars, and how practical are they?

5 fast facts about EVs

—The first EV: The first electric vehicle was devised by Scottish inventor Robert Anderson between 1832 and 1839 — although this electric carriage was not rechargeable.

—No-engine vehicles: EVs don't have internal combustion engines. Instead, power generated by the battery is transmitted directly to the wheels.

—Shortest range: Early EVs had a very limited range, with an electric locomotive built by Robert Davidson in 1842 limited to 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers) on a single charge.

—Largest range: The Lucid Air Grand Touring can go 512 miles (823 km) — around the distance from San Francisco to San Diego — on a single charge.

–Artificial noise: Electric cars are so silent that many countries require manufacturers to install noisemaking devices within them. These activate when the cars are traveling at speeds below 12 to 18 mph (20 to 30 km/h) to alert pedestrians of their presence.

Everything you need to know about EVs

Glossary of terms

• Regenerative braking: In electric cars, kinetic energy taken from the process of slowing the vehicle with its brake pedal is converted into electricity that recharges the battery.
• Internal combustion engine: Internal combustion engines burn fuel to produce controlled explosions. These bursts push pistons up and down hundreds of times per minute to drive a crankshaft and turn the wheels of a vehicle.
• Vehicle emissions: Vehicle emissions are substances released during a vehicle's operation. As gas-powered cars burn fuel, they produce pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide, which are emitted from the tailpipe. EVs do not have an internal combustion engine, so they produce zero tailpipe emissions.
• Torque: Torque is the rotational force produced by a vehicle's engine and what enables a car to get up hills and accelerate quickly. EVs typically have higher torque than gas-powered cars do.

EV pictures

Discover more about EVs

—China's superfast charging technology is twice as fast as Tesla's — fully recharging EVs in just 6 minutes

—Near-unlimited EV range now a possibility thanks to surprising new technology — solar paint

—New solar-powered EV can drive 40 miles daily using the power of the sun — and it's 50% more efficient than a Tesla

Robots are machines that can automatically perform both simple and complex actions. They are often programmed by a computer, but there's no single definition of a robot. Robots include a wide variety of machines, such as the giant arms used to make cars, automatic vacuum cleaners, humanoid machines that look like people and do backflips, and robotic dogs.

As technology develops and gets more powerful, we're seeing more advanced robots. In fact, some robots powered by artificial intelligence (AI) can have normal conversations.

Robots have been around for decades, and you're likely reading this article on a computer or a phone that may have been assembled by a robot.

5 fun facts about robots

• The definition of robotics is older than actual robots. In fact, the ancient Greek writer Homer described "intelligent machines" such as wheeled tripod machines in "The Iliad" around 2,800 years ago.
• Scientists have made robot "animals," that can swim like fish, hop like kangaroos, scuttle like cockroaches or scale walls.
• Robots have been designed to do almost every task people do. For instance, the SwagBot herds cows, Proteus delivers Amazon packages, and the humanoid RoboThespian mops floors and mows the lawn.
• A robot has become a citizen. The humanoid robot Sophia was granted citizenship in Saudi Arabia in October 2017.
• NASA's Voyagers 1 and 2 robotic spacecraft have left the solar system and entered interstellar space in 2012 and 2018, respectively. That means Voyager 1, at 15.6 billion miles (25.6 billion kilometers) away from Earth and counting, is the most distant man-made object in the known universe.

Everything you need to know about robots

Robot pictures

Discover more about robots

—8 of the weirdest robots in the world right now

—12 pivotal moments in the history of robotics, from Isaac Asimov to self-driving cars

—The 7 most disturbing humanoid robots

Finding a running shoe that performs well for you is a difficult task. Different runners have different requirements: some people love a well-stacked running shoe, and some want a thinner-than-paper feel underfoot so they can interact with the terrain. Some people overpronate, and some supinate, meaning they need support in different areas of the shoe: some will want a neutral shoe, while others will want a stability shoe (with arch support to correct overpronation).

If you start to worry about sustainability as well, and are concerned about where your running shoes go after they've taken their last steps, then you're going to end up scratching your head. Shoe shopping suddenly becomes a jungle of jargon, greenwashing and not-quite-false claims about how eco-friendly a company is.

Thankfully, we're here to cut through some of the confusion. We spoke to materials professor, Tony Ryan, a polymer specialist and a runner, who had plenty to say on the subject.

What counts as a sustainable/eco-friendly shoe?

Ryan returned our question with a question. "What does sustainable mean?" he said. "Let's say you want to have lowest greenhouse gas emissions per running shoe, then you'd be able to test that via a life cycle analysis (LCA) and do a comparative LCA between different materials and different constructions."

We should consider whether a shoe is biodegradable at the end of its life. Shoes need to be able to withstand the moist, warm environment of the human foot and the microbes that live there without breaking down, so most shoes are made from fossil-based materials, Ryan explained.

"The reason that the materials aren't biodegradable is that they need to survive," he said. "The one exception is if the sole is made from natural rubber — that comes from a resilient tree. However, it's been so chemically treated, with cross-linking to strengthen the polymers, that it's essentially not biodegradable anymore."

"People who claim to be selling you biodegradable shoes are most likely selling you a lie," Ryan said. Brands will claim something is made from a natural material such as corn starch, but it's much the same process as if you were making plastic from an oil. "Rather than starting from oil, corn starch is made into polylactic acid (PLA)."

This is biodegradable, but often only in an industrial composter — something the average consumer doesn't have access to. So is it really an improvement? "You need to look at the small print," said Ryan.

Why are the materials largely non-recyclable?

Ryan explained that running shoes are made from a variety of different plastic polymers, most of which cannot be recycled together. Running shoes are constructed with many different parts, each with different functions, requiring multiple materials to achieve them all.

"There'll be polyethylene, vinyl acetate, or polyurethane. There might be an airbag, there's usually an insole," he said. "All of those materials are synthetic polymers that are present in the shoe for a specific purpose."

Whether you want shock absorption, resilience or bounce, a different specialist material is required to achieve all of these features in a single shoe. "Even leather shoes are not just made from leather. A leather shoe will have various other materials. Even the most basic leather shoe has stitching, it has glue," added Ryan.

Ryan told Live Science that it's not just that the materials themselves need to be recyclable: the problem is that they're all mixed together in an object that has not been designed for disassembly. "To recycle it, you'd have to disassemble the shoe completely to separate all those materials, because plastics can't be recycled together," explained Ryan.

Even if disassembly is possible, Ryan pointed out that the materials cannot be used to create the same product, as their quality is diminished. He described this as "downcycling."

What are sustainable running shoes made of? How eco-friendly are they, exactly?

Again, this depends on how you define sustainability. Professor Ryan defines the most sustainable running shoe as the one that you wear the longest before replacing it, or one that can be repaired while maintaining as many of the original materials as possible. By this definition, the most sustainable running shoes are the most durable: made from tough plastics and rubbers that don't break down and need discarding.

Alternatively, barefoot running shoes like those made by Vivo Barefoot are light and contain very little fabric or rubber at all when compared to a traditional running shoe, which has many layers of mixed materials. They have a smaller carbon footprint when shipped and are potentially less eco-intensive to produce. Vivo offers repairs in the US, UK and EU, extending the life of a pair indefinitely for a reasonable price. The company also has a take-back scheme in many areas, allowing you to return your shoes to them for proper disposal. They'll take any sneakers, too, not just those they've made, which we thought was neat.

Another company dining out at the sustainability banquet is Allbirds. Many of the materials that Allbirds uses are renewable: the company makes a bioplastic from sugarcane, uses wool in its uppers and sources other materials from recycled plastic bottles and castor oil, and uses recycled cardboard for its packaging.

Ryan explained that using sugarcane is great as a form of carbon capture, where plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air and trap it in their fibers, meaning it cannot pollute. As long as those materials are in existence, that carbon cannot go anywhere else. However, he also pointed out that there is no recycling scheme in place to recover these materials, which will ultimately end up in a landfill or an incinerator. Trapped carbon will be released again when they are destroyed.

Adidas produces shoes made from recycled materials, claiming that by doing so it is "diverting from landfills and using less water and energy to produce." Ryan mused about how many of those products are made from recycled materials. Shoes made with a small percentage of recycled materials can still make that claim.

Adidas also says that "recycled materials represent a better alternative to virgin materials," something else that gave Ryan pause.

"Are the greenhouse gas emissions per shoe less than making a shoe from virgin material?" he said. "If you're causing more pollution by making a shoe from recycled material so you can sell more recycled shoes, that's not sustainable at all, is it? You'd be much better off making longer-lasting shoes from virgin materials than emitting a load of carbon dioxide to make shoes from recycled materials that didn't last very long."

As a consumer, you must always bear in mind that "greenwashing" (using dubious claims of sustainability as a marketing tactic) is a huge issue with large brands, and often, claims cannot be substantiated or are much smaller than indicated. "The things marketed as being sustainable are generally made out of greenwash," quipped Ryan.

It's not all greenwashing, however. Adidas has created a running shoe designed to be recycled: the Ultraboost Made to Be Remade 2.0. This shoe is made from a single material, making it much easier to recycle than a traditional running shoe.

"The whole shoe can be shredded and that material can be recycled as a mixture because it's a mono-material shoe," explained Ryan. "They've got different polyurethanes in the upper and the sole, but by the nature of them both being polyurethane, you get an average material at the end."

Adidas also has multiple shoe recycling schemes using third parties, depending on your region.

• Related: Can carbon removal slow climate change?

Can sustainable materials match non-recyclable materials in terms of durability, safety and running performance?

"It's a conundrum," said Ryan. "If you want to get something that's the lowest greenhouse gas emissions per running mile while maintaining running performance, then it'll be monstrously expensive to produce."

So the answer to our question is "perhaps — but we're not there yet".

It is worth remembering that while the materials are important, sustainability is about so much more than simply how something is made — this is only one piece of the puzzle.

What can scientists do to make running shoes more sustainable?

Professor Ryan is at the forefront of materials research, having worked as a polymer chemist for 40 years. While his work is at the cutting edge of research for new and more sustainable materials, ultimately, they need to be cheap enough to appeal to running shoe brands. As most companies are more interested in their bottom line than they are in sustainability, it might be a while before we see this problem effectively solved.

"Materials can be closed-loop recyclable or be made durable, safe and provide good running performance," said Ryan. "The answer is most likely it's one of these things where you can have two out of three. You can either have performance, environmentally friendly materials, or a cheap shoe. You can't have all three."

What can be done to shop more sustainably?

As mentioned earlier, keep an eye out for greenwashing. A lot of brands want you to believe that they care about the planet while they belch millions of tons of carbon into the atmosphere in other areas of production.

While labor-intensive for the consumer, the best thing you can do is research the companies you buy from and the parent company, if they have one. Many brands that started small and independently owned have been bought out by global giants with awful track records for polluting, modern slavery and unnecessary animal testing (to name but a few corporate sins). The mom-and-pop facade may still be in place, but it's just more greenwashing to make the consumer feel more comfortable.

Also, consider cutting the carbon footprint of your product: Do you need it to be mailed to your front door? Local courier drop-off points can seriously shave down the fuel used to get your item to you, or even better, you could go to your local store if it's within walking distance.

Buy second-hand, buy refurbished, buy overstocked products. All of these actions can help extend the life of a pair of shoes and divert them from landfill, even if only temporarily.

Ryan recommends giving each product claim you come across a sense test, using the example of a cornstarch shower cap he found the other day. "You don't need to be a chemistry professor to work it out: it wasn't a lie as such. The feedstock was cornstarch, which was turned into sugar, then fermented to make a monomer and polymerized to make a polymer, which is a plastic. That's how it worked as a shower cap." Is that sustainable? You decide.

Finally, consider your relationship with your running shoes: Do you need six pairs? Do you need a new pair just because a new generation has been released? Are your running shoes genuinely at the end of their life when you throw them away?

With its beautiful rings, Saturn may be the most stunning planet in the solar system. It is the sixth planet from the sun and the second-largest planet in the solar system, after Jupiter.

Though Saturn is famous for its rings, all of the other giant planets — including Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune — have ring systems. But Saturn stands out for having beautiful yellow and gold bands across its surface, as well as for hosting more moons than any other planet in the solar system. In fact, some of Saturn's moons are among the best places to search for life outside Earth.

5 fast facts about Saturn

• Saturn is the farthest planet from Earth that is still visible with the naked eye in the night sky.
• The name "Saturn" comes from the Roman god of wealth and agriculture.
• A day on Saturn lasts 10.7 hours, but a year on Saturn lasts 29.4 Earth years.
• It takes 80 minutes for sunlight to travel to Saturn.
• Saturn is less dense than water, so it could float in a (very large) bathtub.

Everything you need to know about Saturn

Saturn pictures

Discover more about Saturn

—What are Saturn's rings made of?

—There's a weird, disappearing dark spot on Saturn's moon Enceladus

—100-year-long 'megastorms' on Saturn are creating radio signals that scientists can't fully explain

Primates are a group of mammals that includes humans and our close relatives, such as apes, monkeys and lemurs. Monkeys, such as capuchins and macaques; prosimians, like lemurs and tarsiers; lesser apes, such as gibbons; and great apes, like gorillas, chimpanzees and orangutans, are all primates. Our close extinct relatives, such as the Neanderthals, were also primates. Most primates live in tropical climates close to the equator, though some live in colder or snowy environments, like the mountains of Japan.

Primates have larger brains than most other mammals of their size. This gives them advanced learning and problem-solving abilities. Many primates also live in complex social groups and communicate through vocal sounds, body language and facial expressions. Humans' closest living relatives are chimpanzees and bonobos — and a few of these animals have even been taught to understand some human language.

5 fast facts about primates

• Humans are primates, and chimpanzees and bonobos are our closest surviving relatives.
• Chimpanzees and capuchin monkeys use tools to get food.
• Primates often groom each other by picking off dirt and ticks, not just to stay clean, but also to build friendships and settle fights.
• Unlike many other mammals, which can see only two colors (blue and green), most primates can see three colors (blue, green and red).
• Kanzi, a bonobo born in captivity who was given language lessons, could play Minecraft and Pac-Man, and understand when his keepers spoke to him in English.

Everything you need to know about primates

Primate pictures

Discover more about primates

—Monkeys: Facts about the largest group of primates

—Chimpanzees: Intelligent, social and violent

—Why haven't all primates evolved into humans?

Editor's note: This article was updated at 4.20 a.m. ET on May 2, 2025 to correct the locations where primates are found.

The flu is a contagious viral infection of the respiratory system that affects the nose, throat and lungs. It is caused by influenza viruses.

Symptoms of mild flu infections can resemble those of the common cold, which is also caused by viruses; that said, flu symptoms tend to be more intense than cold symptoms and come on faster. And in severe cases, flu symptoms can be serious enough to lead to hospitalization and death.

Flu viruses are categorized into four types: A, B, C and D. Types A and B are the most harmful to humans and cause seasonal flu epidemics; in the Northern Hemisphere, flu season typically occurs from October to May, with peak activity from December to February.

Influenza C can also infect people but causes very mild illness and is not associated with epidemics, while type D affects cattle and other animals and is not known to cause illness in humans.

Flu spreads between people via viral particles in droplets expelled when an infected person coughs or sneezes, or through saliva exchanged via shared utensils or kissing.

Each year, seasonal flu sickens about 1 billion people worldwide and causes approximately 290,000 to 650,000 respiratory deaths. In a given season, the U.S. sees about 200,000 hospitalizations and 36,000 deaths from flu, although these numbers vary year to year.

With rare exceptions, seasonal vaccines are recommended for everyone 6 months and older to avoid illness and to prevent serious complications from flu. Hand-washing, avoiding contact with sick people and masking while in public can also reduce the risk of infection.

Facts about the flu

• Cause: Influenza viruses
• Early symptoms: Fever, chills, tiredness, muscle aches
• Prevention: Seasonal vaccinations

Everything you need to know about the flu

Glossary

• Sepsis: A life-threatening medical emergency caused by the body's extreme response to an infection. During sepsis, the immune system ceases to fight invading pathogens and begins attacking body tissues and organs.
• Pneumonia: An infection that causes inflammation in lung tissue, filling the lungs with pus or fluid and restricting breathing. Pneumonia can occur in one lung or in both, and it may be caused by viruses, bacteria or fungi.
• Rhinovirus: A type of virus that affects surface cells in the respiratory system. Rhinoviruses are the most frequent cause of the common cold. They spread through the air and through contact with contaminated surfaces.
• Viral load: How much of a virus a person is carrying in their body. The more the virus replicates in a person, the higher their viral load will be. This typically makes the person more likely to spread the infection, as well.

Flu pictures

Discover more about the flu

—How do people die of the flu?

—How long is the flu contagious?

—How to get better faster when you have the flu, according to science

This article is for informational purposes only and is not meant to offer medical advice.

Ancient Egypt in North Africa was one of the most powerful and influential civilizations in the region for over 3,000 years, from around 3100 B.C to 30 B.C. It left behind numerous monuments, documents and works of art that continue to be studied by scholars today.

However Egyptian civilization existed long before this period, and it has survived and flourished since. While the civilization's rulers, language, writing, climate, religion and borders have changed many times over the millennia, Egypt still exists as a modern-day country.

Ancient Egypt was closely connected with other parts of the world, bringing in and exporting goods, religions, food, people and ideas. At times ancient Egypt ruled territory outside the modern-day country's border, controlling territory in what is now Sudan, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine.

The country was also occupied by other powers in ancient times — the Persians, Nubians, Greeks and Romans all conquered Egypt at different points.

A number of names were used for Egypt. A popular ancient name for Egypt was "Kemet," which means the "black land." Scholars generally believe that this name derived from the fertile soil that was left over when the Nile flood receded in August.

The Nile flooded between June and August each year, and the fertile soil it created was vital to ancient Egypt's survival, with fertility playing an important role in Egyptian religion. The burial of Tutankhamun — in which his penis was mummified — is but one example of how important fertility was in the rituals and beliefs of the ancient Egyptians.

The country's ancient rulers are referred to today as "pharaohs," although in ancient times they each used a series of names as part of a royal titular, wrote Ronald Leprohon, a professor emeritus of Egyptology at the University of Toronto, in his book "The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary" (Society of Biblical Literature, 2013). The word pharaoh originates from the Egyptian term "per-aa," which means "the Great House," Leprohon wrote. The term was first incorporated into a royal title during the rule of Thutmose III (reign circa. 1479 to 1425 B.C.), Leprohon wrote.

Egypt's prehistory

When exactly early hominids first arrived in Egypt is unclear. The earliest migration of hominids out of Africa took place almost 2 million years ago, with modern humans dispersing out of Africa about 100,000 years ago. Egypt may have been used to reach Asia in some of these migrations.

Villages dependent on agriculture began to appear in Egypt about 7,000 years ago. The civilization's earliest written inscriptions date back about 5,200 years and reveal information about the early rulers of Egypt. These early rulers include Iry-Hor, who, according to the inscriptions, founded Memphis, a city that served as Egypt's capital for much of its history. The inscriptions also document a queen named Neith-Hotep, who ruled as a regent for a young pharaoh named Djer sometime In the late predynastic period.

Related: How old is ancient Egypt?

How and when ancient Egypt was united into one kingdom is a matter of debate among archaeologists and historians. One possibility is that a number of smaller states coalesced into two kingdoms — Upper and Lower Egypt — and then these two kingdoms united. After Egypt was united pharaohs were often depicted wearing two crowns — one for Lower Egypt and another for Upper Egypt.

Egypt's climate was much wetter in prehistoric times than it is today, and some areas that are now barren desert were once fertile. One famous archaeological site where this can be seen is at the 6,000- to 9,000-year-old rock art at the "cave of swimmers," as it is called today, on the Gilf Kebir plateau in southwest Egypt. The cave is now surrounded by miles of barren desert; however, it has rock art showing what some scholars interpret as people swimming. After this wet period ended around 5,000 years ago, the deserts of Egypt have remained pretty similar to how they are now, Joseph Manning, the William K. and Marilyn Milton Simpson professor of classics at Yale University, previously told Live Science.

Egypt's dynasties and pharaohs

Ancient Egypt's history has traditionally been divided into 30 (or sometimes 31) dynasties. However, "the 'dynasties' of Egypt are really just retrospective constructs," Michael Dee, an associate professor of isotope chronology at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, previously told Live Science in an email.

The Egyptian priest Manetho, who lived during the third century B.C., started the dynasty construct. His accounts of ancient Egyptian history were preserved by ancient Greek writers and, until hieroglyphic writing was deciphered in the 19th century, were among the few historical accounts that scholars could read.

Modern-day scholars often group these dynasties into several periods. Dynasties one and two date back around 5,000 years and are often called the "Early Dynastic" or "Archaic" period. The first pharaoh of the first dynasty was a ruler named Menes (or Narmer, as he is called in Greek). He lived over 5,000 years ago, and while ancient writers sometimes credited him as being the first pharaoh of a united Egypt, however archaeological research suggests that this is not true. Recently found inscriptions tell of rulers — such as Djer and Iry-Hor — who appear to have ruled earlier and other finds have been made which suggest that there were pharaohs before Menes who ruled a united Egypt. Scholars sometimes refer to these pre-Menes rulers as being part of a "dynasty zero."

Dynasties three to six date from roughly 2650 to 2150 B.C. and are often grouped together into a time period called the "Old Kingdom" by modern-day scholars. During this time pyramid-building techniques were developed and the pyramids of Giza were built. Papyri that are still being deciphered suggest that groups of professional workers — sometimes translated as "work gangs" — played a major role in the construction of the pyramids, as well as other structures.

From 2150 to 2030 B.C. (a time period that encompassed dynasties seven to 10 and part of 11) the central government in Egypt was weak and the country was often controlled by different regional leaders. Why the Old Kingdom collapsed is a matter of debate among scholars, with research indicating that drought and climate change played a significant role. During this time, cities and civilizations in the Middle East also collapsed, with evidence at archaeological sites indicating that a period of drought and arid climate hit sites across the region.

The 12th, 13th and part of the 11th dynasties are often called the "Middle Kingdom" by scholars and lasted from around 2030 to 1640 B.C. At the start of this dynasty, a ruler named Mentuhotep II (who reigned until about 2000 B.C.) regained control of the whole country. Pyramid building resumed in Egypt, and a sizable number of texts of literature and science were created. Among the surviving texts is a document now known as the Edwin Smith surgical papyrus, which records a variety of medical treatments that modern-day medical doctors have hailed as being advanced for their time.

Dynasties 14 to 17 are often grouped together as the "Second Intermediate Period" by modern-day scholars. During this time, the central government again collapsed in Egypt, and a group called the "Hyksos" rose to power, controlling much of northern Egypt. While the Hyksos may have originally been from the Levant (an area that encompasses modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria), research indicates that they were already in Egypt at the time the government collapsed. One gruesome find from this time period is a series of severed hands, which were found at a palace at the city of Avaris, the capital of Hyksos-controlled Egypt. The severed hands may have been presented by soldiers to a ruler in exchange for gold.

Scholars often refer to dynasties 18 to 20 as encompassing the "New Kingdom," a period that lasted around 1550 to 1070 B.C. This period took place after the Hyksos had been defeated by a series of Egyptian rulers and the country reunited. Perhaps the most famous archaeological site from the New Kingdom is the Valley of the Kings, which holds the burial sites of many Egyptian rulers from this period, including Tutankhamun (reign circa 1336 to 1327 B.C.), whose rich tomb was found intact in1922. The pharaohs stopped building pyramids during the New Kingdom for a variety of reasons — one of which was to provide better security against tomb robbers.

The 21st to 24th dynasties (a period from around 1070 to 713 B.C.) are often called the "Third Intermediate Period" by modern-day scholars. The central government was sometimes weak during this time period, and the country was not always united. During this time cities and civilizations across the Middle East had been destroyed by people from the Aegean, whom modern-day scholars sometimes call the "Sea Peoples." While Egyptian rulers claimed to have defeated the Sea Peoples in battle, it didn't prevent Egyptian civilization from collapsing. The loss of trade routes and revenue may have played a role in the weakening of Egypt's central government.

Dynasties 25 to 31 (from around 712 to 332 B.C.) are often referred to as the "Late Period" by scholars. Egypt was sometimes under the control of foreign powers during this time. The rulers of the 25th dynasty were from Nubia, an area located in modern-day southern Egypt and northern Sudan. The Persians and Assyrians also controlled Egypt at different times during the Late Period.

In 332 B.C. Alexander the Great drove the Persians out of Egypt and incorporated the country into the Macedonian Empire. After Alexander the Great's death, a line of rulers descended from Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexander's generals, came to power. The last of these "Ptolemaic" rulers (as scholars often call them) was Cleopatra VII, who died by suicide in 30 B.C after the defeat of her forces by Octavian, who would later be named the Roman emperor Augustus, at the Battle of Actium. After her death, Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire.

Although the Roman emperors were based in Rome, the Egyptians treated them as pharaohs. One excavated carving shows the emperor Claudius (reign A.D. 41 to 54) dressed as a pharaoh, Live Science reported. The carving has hieroglyphic inscriptions saying that Claudius is the "Son of Ra, Lord of the Crowns," and "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands."

Neither the Ptolemaic or Roman rulers are considered to be part of a numbered dynasty.

Ancient Egyptian Religion and Gods

Throughout much of Egypt's ancient history its people followed a polytheistic religion in which a vast number of gods and goddesses were venerated. One of the most important was Osiris, god of the underworld. Abydos was an important cult center for him, and numerous temples and shrines were constructed at the site in his honor.

Amun-Ra — a god associated with the sun — became particularly important during the New Kingdom and was associated with the city of Luxor (ancient Thebes). The Karnak Temple complex was built near Luxor in honor of this god.

Navigating the underworld was vital to the ancient Egyptians, who believed that the dead could reach a paradise of sorts, where they could live forever. Egyptian dead were sometimes mummified, preserving the body, and were sometimes buried with spells to aid them in navigating the underworld. These spells included excerpts from what are sometimes called the "Book of the Dead" — a 52-foot-long (16 meters) copy of which was recently found in a tomb at Saqqara.

In ancient Egyptian mythology, one of the first steps in navigating the underworld was to weigh a person's deeds against the feather of Maat, who was a god associated with truth, justice and order. If the person had committed a great deal of wrong, the person's heart would be heavier than the feather and the person's soul would be obliterated. On the other hand, if their deeds were generally good, they passed forward and had the opportunity to successfully navigate the underworld.

Figurines called shabti were often buried with the deceased. Their purpose was to do the deceased's work in the afterlife for them.

Egyptian religion did not remain static but changed over time. One major change occurred during the reign of the pharaoh Akhenaten (circa 1353 to 1335 B.C.), a ruler who unleashed a religious revolution that saw Egyptian religion become focused around the worship of "Aten" the sun disk. Akhenaten built an entirely new capital in the desert at Amarna and ordered the names of some of Egypt's deities to be defaced. After Akhenaten's death his son, Tutankhamun, denounced him and returned ancient Egypt to its previous polytheistic religion.

When Egypt came under Greek and Roman rule, the new rulers' gods and goddesses were incorporated into Egyptian religion. Another major change occurred after the first century A.D. when Christianity spread throughout Egypt. At this time Gnosticism, a religion that incorporated some Christian beliefs, also spread throughout Egypt, and a large corpus of Gnostic texts were discovered in 1945 in southern Egypt near the city of Nag Hammadi.

Islam spread throughout the country after A.D. 641, when the country was captured by a Muslim army. Today, Islam is practiced by the majority of Egypt's inhabitants, while a minority are Christian, many being part of the Coptic Church.

Egyptian writing

The earliest inscriptions date back about 5,200 years and were written in a hieroglyphic script.

"Ancient Egyptian was a living oral language, and most hieroglyphs represent the sounds of consonants and certain emphatically expressed vowels," wrote Barry Kemp, a professor of Egyptology at the University of Cambridge, England, in his book "100 Hieroglyphs: Think Like an Egyptian" (Granta Books, 2005). Kemp noted that the ancient Egyptians also developed "an abbreviated 'long hand' form of writing which we call 'hieratic.'" During the first millennium A.D. this abbreviated hieratic script was supplanted by a new form of short-form writing called "Demotic."

Egyptian language changed over the millennia, with scholars often subdividing the surviving writings into categories such as "Old Egyptian," "Middle Egyptian" and "Late Egyptian."

The Greek language became widely used in the time after Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great. In the late 19th century, archaeologists excavated half a million papyri fragments, most of which were written in Greek, at the ancient Egyptian town of Oxyrhynchus in southern Egypt, dating to the early centuries A.D.

Coptic, an Egyptian language that uses the Greek alphabet, was widely used after Christianity spread throughout Egypt. As Greek and Coptic grew in popularity, the use of the hieroglyphic writing style declined and became extinct during the fifth century A.D. After A.D. 641 the Arabic language spread in Egypt and is widely used in the country today.

Additional resources

• In this History Channel documentary, you'll learn how the ancient Egyptians harnessed the power of engineering to build an empire. The video is about 1.5 hours long.
• The Australian Museum put together a timeline of historic and other events in ancient Egypt, including a breakdown of each dynasty and the significant dates within that dynasty.
• This DK book "Ancient Egypt: The Definitive Visual History" could be a fun way to teach kids about the marvels of ancient Egypt.

Bears are a type of mammal that can be found in many parts of the world. From the tiny, silly-looking sun bear to the iconic polar bear, these animals are specially adapted to different environments, including forests, mountains, icy tundra, deserts and swamps. Though there are different types of bear, all bear species have similarities. They all have stocky, fur-covered bodies; short legs; and a round head with a long snout. Whether the word "bear" makes you think of a fierce predator or a cuddly stuffed toy, there's plenty to discover about the science behind this diverse group of mammals.

5 fast facts about bears

• Panda bears poop 40 times per day.
• When they're first born, bear cubs weigh less than 2 pounds (0.9 kg).
• Bears that snack on honey have thick skin and fluffy fur that protects them against bee stings.
• Because polar bears spend so much time on the water, they're classified as marine mammals.
• Bears have a great sense of smell that helps them sniff out food.

Everything you need to know about bears

More bear pictures

Discover more about bears

—Polar bears: The largest land carnivores

—Black bears: The most common bear in North America

—Sun bear: The little carnivores that look so similar to humans they've been mistaken for people wearing costumes

The domestic cat is one of the smallest members of the family Felidae — the group that includes lions, tigers, jaguars and cougars. It is also the only member of that family that has been domesticated.

Cats have lived among humans for thousands of years. They probably started hanging around human grain stores, attracted by mice and other vermin, and eventually spread around the world as sailors brought them aboard ships.

Today, cats still help humans control pests, as well as provide companionship. In the past few centuries, humans have bred some cats to display certain traits, like hairlessness, thereby establishing dozens of cat breeds. With their charming mix of aloofness and goofiness, cats continue to amuse and fascinate us.

Everything you need to know about domestic cats

Discover more about cats

—Did cats really disappear from North America for 7 million years?

—Are cats and dogs smarter than babies?

—Cat brains are shrinking, and it's all humans' fault

When you’re getting started in astrophotography, one of the most exciting celestial events that you can capture is a meteor shower. Photographing the fleeting beauty of a meteor shower can be awe-inspiring and a very rewarding experience, but it does require some degree of preparation, the right equipment and a bit of creative flair to get the most out of your images.

Meteor showers can be exciting and awe-inspiring celestial events, and capturing them on camera requires a blend of technical skill, patience and a degree of creativity. By carefully selecting the right meteor shower, preparing your equipment and your camera settings and employing creative techniques, you can produce stunning images quickly with a little practice. Full moons and bad weather can sometimes test your patience and ruin your fun, but immortalizing these fleeting moments will be worth it!

Calendar

These are the upcoming meteor showers taking place over the next few months — take note of the peak dates and visibility to ensure you have the best chance of capturing this magnificent sight.

Equipment

The good thing about getting started photographing meteor showers is that you don’t need the most expensive gear to capture a great shot, but certain equipment will certainly improve your chances of capturing stunning shots.

DSLR or mirrorless cameras

These provide full manual control, essential for long exposures. Some of the very best astrophotography cameras, such as the Nikon Z8, even have dedicated astrophotography modes. The OM System OM-1 Mark II even has a Live Composite mode, which would be fantastic for meteor showers. If you're new to the hobby, just make sure your beginner astro camera shoots in manual and has good ISO performance.

Which lenses?

Using a wide-angle lens (14mm to 24mm) captures more of the sky, increasing the chances of photographing multiple meteors. The best lenses for astrophotography also need a fast aperture (f/2.8 or lower) to ensure more light hits the sensor, which is a must for low-light environments.

Tripod and other equipment

A sturdy tripod is non-negotiable for long exposures. Any movement, either from you knocking the camera or the wind, will result in blurred images. We’d also recommend using a remote shutter release or timer, which reduces vibrations when pressing the shutter. Many newer cameras also have an in-built intervalometer, which can help if you're stacking your images.

Remember to take extra memory cards and fully charged batteries with you, as long-exposure photography consumes both quickly and in cold environments, battery performance can be degraded. One of the best power banks can help keep your gear going for longer. It’s also worth packing a headlamp with a red light, which is essential for navigating in the dark without ruining your night vision. It’s optional, but a dew heater or lens warmer can also prevent condensation on your lens during cold nights.

Camera settings

Capturing meteors involves long exposures and low-light settings. It starts with putting your camera in manual mode, which gives you complete control over exposure, aperture and focus.

Start with 20-30 seconds of exposure and use the 500 rule to calculate maximum exposure time without star trails: divide 500 by the focal length of your lens and round down to the nearest full number. Use the widest aperture (f/2.8 or lower) available to gather as much light as possible, and start with an ISO setting as low as you think you can get away with, depending on your camera body – ISO 1600 is a good starting point, and you can always ramp up from there and adjust it depending on how grainy your images come out. Choosing an ISO is a bit more of an art than a science.

Turn off image stabilization (IS/VR) if your lens has it, especially when using a tripod. Also make sure you shoot in RAW mode, as this maximizes your ability to adjust exposure and color balance during editing, which is vital for achieving the right tonality and color grade in astrophotography.

Photography Techniques

Once you’ve got a good grip on the technical aspects, you’ll feel like it’s time to get creative. Here are some thoughts on how you might achieve a different look to your meteor shower photography.

Include foreground elements

Adding foreground elements can provide context and make your images more visually compelling. Silhouettes of trees or mountains can create a dramatic contrast against the night sky, and man-made structures like bridges, lighthouses or abandoned buildings can add a unique perspective and a sense of drama.

Time-lapse and star trails

You can create dynamic sequences by combining multiple shots. If you shoot hundreds of images you can compile them into a time-lapse in the edit, showing meteors streaking across the sky. Stack multiple exposures together over the course of the night to create circular star trails while highlighting meteors separately. You can also use a headlamp to illuminate foreground objects during long exposures. We loved using the Live Composite feature to create star trails during our OM System OM-1 Mark II review.

Composite images

Meteor showers can be unpredictable, and a single frame may not capture multiple meteors. Combine several images taken over the night to showcase more meteors in one composition.

Reflections

If you’re near very still water, you can often capture meteors reflecting off water bodies like lakes. This might take a bit of experimentation, and you’ll need a fast lens and a camera body that can cope well with high ISO settings.

Capturing fireballs

Occasionally, meteor showers produce exceptionally bright meteors called fireballs. These can light up the sky and cast shadows, offering dramatic photography opportunities. You’ll need to be quick, though, and adjust your exposure rapidly if a fireball appears.

Panoramic shots

Capture a broader view of the night sky by stitching multiple wide-angle shots together. This technique can showcase the vastness of the sky during a meteor shower.

Post processing

When it comes to getting the most out of your astrophotography, it’s worth learning about the ins and outs of editing and post-processing, as mastering these skills will help you produce photographs you can be proud of.

Use software like Adobe Lightroom or Photoshop to reduce noise, especially for high ISO images. You can also adjust contrast and clarity to make meteors stand out and fine-tune the white balance and saturation for more vibrant skies. Use stacking software like StarStaX or Affinity Photo 2 to create seamless star trail images.

Which meteor shower should you photograph?

Luckily, meteor showers are among the most predictable celestial events each year, and we are able to track their appearances. In the northern hemisphere, we’re blessed with several prominent displays throughout the year. They occur when Earth’s orbit passes through the debris trail left by comets or, in some cases, asteroids. This debris, often no larger than grains of sand, burns up upon entering Earth’s atmosphere, creating bright streaks of light.

Research plays a pivotal role in photographing any meteor shower, so it’s best to do this well in advance of an expected shower — but perhaps not so far in advance that you aren’t able to access a reliable source of weather information, as this data is also crucial in determining what you’ll see and where you’ll travel to.

Look at information about the peak nights of the shower, which offer the best chance to capture numerous meteors. For each shower, these generally happen at the same time each year. You will also need to find dark sky locations and use light pollution maps like lightpollutionmap.info to locate the darkest skies near you.

It’s also important to check the moon phase. Aim for a new moon or minimal moonlight to maximize visibility.

Here are some of the things to consider when starting out taking images of meteor showers:

Intensity: The number of meteors you can see per hour, known as the zenithal hourly rate (ZHR).

Radiant point: The area in the sky from which the meteors appear to originate.

Moon phase: A bright moon can wash out faint meteors, so timing around a new moon is ideal.

Weather and light pollution: Clear skies and minimal light pollution are crucial.

Best meteor showers in the Northern Hemisphere

There is lots of information online about the most reliable meteor showers, and you can also find some excellent imagery for inspiration for your own photographs, but we’ve put the basic information below. Cold, crisp winter skies can be a really good time to capture images of meteor showers, providing the weather and conditions can offer a clear view of the night sky.

Quadrantids (January)
Known for its sharp peak that lasts a few hours, this is one of the strongest meteor showers of the year.

Peak: Around January 3-4
ZHR: 60-100 meteors per hour
Radiant: Near the constellation Boötes

Lyrids (April)
One of the oldest recorded showers, often with bright, fast meteors.

Peak: Around April 21-22
ZHR: 15-20 meteors per hour
Radiant: Near the constellation Lyra

Perseids (August)
Famous for their high frequency and bright meteors during warm summer nights.

Peak: Around August 11-13
ZHR: 50-100 meteors per hour
Radiant: Near the constellation Perseus

Orionids (October)
Known for their fast meteors and occasional fireballs.

Peak: Around October 20-22
ZHR: 15-25 meteors per hour
Radiant: Near the constellation Orion

Geminids (December)
One of the most reliable and prolific showers.

Peak: Around December 13-14
ZHR: 120-150 meteors per hour
Radiant: Near the constellation Gemini

Dolphins live in almost every ocean, except most tend to avoid the cold waters in the Arctic and around Antarctica. Some also live in rivers, including the Amazon River in South America and the Ganges River in India.

Dolphins are technically classified as whales, but are different from their larger cousins in many ways. The largest dolphin species is the orca, which measures up to 32 feet (9.8 m) long, while the smallest species is the Hector's dolphin, which grows to only 4.8 feet (1.5 m) long.

Dolphins live and hunt in large social groups called pods, and they communicate with each other using high-pitched clicks and whistles. They are very intelligent because they have to work together to hunt down prey.

Dolphins also love to play. You can often spot them surfing waves, toying with seaweed, and even interacting with other species for fun. Some species can swim incredibly fast, with the short-beaked common dolphin hitting speeds of up to 37 mph (60 km/h) — about as fast as a car driving on city streets.

5 fast facts about dolphins

• Dolphins use tools to find food. Some dolphins cover their beaks with sponges while searching for food on the seafloor. Others use empty shells to trap fish.
• Dolphins live in social groups called pods. Pods usually have two to 30 dolphins, but some dolphins live in superpods of over 1,000 animals.
• Dolphins use a language of clicks and whistles, called echolocation, to track down their prey and create a mental map of their surroundings.
• Some dolphin species live in freshwater rivers, like the Amazon.
• Despite their name, killer whales (orcas) are actually dolphins.

Everything you need to know about dolphins

Dolphin pictures

Discover more about dolphins

—The weird reason dolphins drink each other’s pee

—Watch a huge megapod of acrobatic spinner dolphins in incredible, rare video

—Orcas: Facts about killer whales

Whales are a group of mammals that live in oceans. They include some of the largest animals on Earth. The blue whale is the biggest animal that has ever existed. Whales can be found in every ocean, with many species migrating long distances between their feeding and mating grounds, where they gather to have babies.

There are over 90 whale species. Some of the most famous whale species are humpback whales, sperm whales, blue whales and narwhals. Despite their name, killer whales — or orcas — are not whales. Instead, they are part of the closely related dolphin family.

Many whale species were hunted for their oil and other body parts during the 1800s and 1900s, and they almost went extinct. Even though this practice has been banned in most countries, some whale species still have very small populations and are considered vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered.

5 fast facts about whales

• Cuvier's beaked whales hold the record for the deepest-diving mammal. They can go nearly 10,000 feet (3,000 m) below the water's surface — about 10 times deeper than the Eiffel Tower is tall..
• Some whales, such as humpback whales, are known for their long and complex songs, sometimes lasting up to 22 hours.
• Whales are not fish, so they cannot breathe underwater. Instead, they use the blowholes on the top of their head to breathe air at the ocean's surface.
• Whales evolved from a deer-like land mammal called Pakicetus about 50 million years ago.
• A sperm whale's brain weighs about 17 pounds (8 kilograms) — about five times heavier than a human brain — making it the largest brain of any known animal.

Everything you need to know about whales

Whale pictures

Discover more about whales

—Humpback whales: Facts about the singers of the sea

—Will humans ever learn to speak whale?

—Why some whales go through menopause

Heart rate tracking is increasingly common among fitness enthusiasts, and understandably so. Whether it is a rugged outdoor smartwatch or a discreet smart ring, smart wearables can help you determine if you exercised hard enough, rested well during sleep or stressed too much during the day — simply by listening to your heartbeat.

Some of the best fitness trackers can even use machine learning to give you detailed exercise recommendations based on how your health metrics change over time — not to mention that smart wearables can be invaluable tools for endurance athletes. But how do fitness trackers measure your heart rate, exactly? And how accurate are these measurements? We asked the experts.

Most fitness watches and smart rings depend on a technique called photoplethysmography (PPG). While its name may sound scarily complex, this technology is based on a relatively simple concept — light absorption by the body tissues.

How does photoplethysmography work?

PPG uses optical sensors that detect heart rate by measuring changes in the volume of blood flowing through tiny blood vessels in the skin and underlying connective tissue, Dr. Peter Sogaard, professor of cardiology at Aalborg University in Denmark and chief medical officer at VentriJect, a company which has developed a novel device for measuring cardiorespiratory fitness, told Live Science by email.

With each heartbeat, the heart muscle contracts and relaxes, to force the next portion of blood into circulation. Contracting causes a temporary spike in blood volume and increased pressure on the artery walls, and it is often referred to as the systolic phase of the cardiac cycle. When the heart relaxes between beats, the blood flow decreases — this is known as the diastolic phase. PPG sensors measure these changes in blood volume and pulse pressure (the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure), and then convert these metrics into heart rate measurements, Sogaard said.

PPG sensors detect these changes in blood movement by emitting light at specific wavelengths into the skin. Blood components like hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells, absorb some of that light. The tracker's photodetector then measures the amount of light reflected back. The more light absorbed by the blood, the higher its volume in the blood vessels — and this is what fitness trackers interpret as a heartbeat, Sogaard said.

"The most commonly used light sources are infrared and green LED," Sogaard said. That is because these wavelengths of light tend to be the most effective at penetrating the skin tissue, according to a 2022 review published in the Frontiers of Physiology. Generally, the accuracy of PPG increases with the light wavelength, the review authors noted. Some optical sensors even combine several wavelengths to improve accuracy.

That is the theory. But how accurate are optical sensors in practice? The answer is less clear.

How accurate is photoplethysmography?

"Multiple factors can affect the accuracy of PPG, from tracker placement and body temperature to skin thickness, motion artifact [distortions caused by movement] and cardiovascular disorders like arrhythmia and peripheral vascular disease [a condition in which the arteries outside of the brain and the heart become blocked or narrowed]," Dr. Masaki Nakamura, a cardiothoracic surgeon at Baptist Health Miami Cardiac & Vascular Institute, told Live Science by email.

For example, optical sensors tend to provide more reliable heart rate measurements during rest and sleep than they do during exercise, according to a 2020 meta-analysis in the Journal of Sports Sciences. Scientists compiled 44 studies that compared the accuracy of PPG fitness to more precise ECG (electrocardiogram) and chest-strap heart rate monitors and found that the biggest discrepancies could be observed with weightlifting, cycling and other high-intensity sports. While most modern fitness trackers use accelerometer-based algorithms to account for rapid movements, motion artifacts can still affect their tracking accuracy.

Skin contact is another factor that can have an impact on PPG measurements, Sogaard said. For example, a device that is too loose or too tight will not allow the optical sensors to get a good reading. Skin temperature can also interfere with PPG. "If the patient has a low temperature, vessels are contracted and measurements become inaccurate," Sogaard said.

Moreover, optical sensors may struggle with detecting heart rate in people with darker skin tones or tattoos. That is because both melanin, the dark pigment in the skin, and tattoo ink can absorb light and reduce the amount of light reflected back to the tracker, according to a 2023 review published in the Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities.

People with obesity may also struggle with obtaining accurate heart rate measurements. Excess body fat can lead to changes in skin thickness and blood flow, which is why it may affect the accuracy of optical sensors, according to a 2021 review published in the journal Biosensors. The good news is that scientists are working on developing new technologies that would make PPG more accessible for these population groups.

While not without limitations, PPG fitness trackers can be useful for monitoring heart rate in people with certain cardiovascular conditions, according to Nakamura. "Continuous heart rate and blood pressure monitoring can be crucial for cardiac patients to prevent future events like a heart attack, stroke or acute heart failure. The current industry gold standards of blood pressure and heart rate assessment are the manual sphygmomanometer (BP cuff) and the electrocardiogram. However, both these exams can only be measured intermittently and can be affected by factors such as white coat syndrome [a condition when a person's blood pressure is high only when measured in a health care setting], caffeine or stress," Nakamura said.

That said, experts agree that PPG-based heart rate readings should never be regarded as a substitute for clinically validated tests conducted by healthcare professionals.

This article is for informational purposes only and is not meant to offer medical advice.

Dinosaurs are the extinct relatives of birds that roamed the lands and seas of ancient Earth. They first appeared around 240 million to 230 million years ago in the Triassic Period, and went extinct around 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous Period, when a massive asteroid slammed into Earth.

During the Triassic Period, when dinosaurs first evolved, all the continents we know today were clumped together in a single landmass called Pangaea. Over tens of millions of years, Pangaea split apart, eventually coming to resemble the map of the world we know today. Dinosaur fossils have been found on every continent around the globe, including Antarctica.

Some of the most famous types of dinosaurs include Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Stegosaurus and Velociraptor, many of which were featured in the popular "Jurassic Park" movies. Most of these dinosaurs lived tens of millions of years apart from each other.

Dinosaurs belong to a group of animals known as archosaurs, which also includes modern-day animals such as birds and crocodiles.

5 fast facts about dinosaurs

• The heaviest known dinosaur is thought to be Argentinosaurus, a supermassive titanosaur that lived during the Cretaceous period. It may have weighed up to 180,800 pounds (82,000 kilograms).
• An asteroid wiped out the dinosaurs. The crash left a giant crater around 110 miles (180 kilometers) wide off Mexico's coast.
• The word "dinosaur" means "terrible lizard" in Latin, and it was first made up in 1842 by paleontologist Richard Owen.
• Birds are actually dinosaurs. They evolved from theropods, a group of mostly meat-eaters that included Velociraptor and T. rex.
• Pterodactyls are flying reptiles that lived at the same time as the dinosaurs, but they are not actually dinosaurs.

Everything you need to know about dinosuars

Dinosaur pictures

Discover more about dinosaurs

—A brief history of dinosaurs

—Mesozoic era: Age of the dinosaurs

—What if a giant asteroid had not wiped out the dinosaurs?

Rowing and running are undoubtedly some of the most popular forms of cardiovascular exercise. Both activities can send your heart rate through the roof and get your blood pumping, and both have been shown to decrease the risk of developing heart disease and high blood pressure. When it comes to cardiovascular benefits, rowing and running seem to be on equal footing, according to a 2023 study published in the European Heart Journal.

However, there is an interesting twist — evidence suggests that elite rowers tend to have notably bigger hearts compared to elite runners.

Take the landmark 1994 study published in the American Journal of Cardiology, for example. One of the biggest of its kind, it investigated structural and functional changes within the heart of 947 elite athletes representing 27 sports disciplines. Scientists used echocardiography — images of the heart obtained with an ultrasound scan — and found that, of all study participants, rowers had the thickest left ventricular wall.

This is the layer of muscle and connecting tissue surrounding the largest chamber of the heart. Rowers also had some of the largest left ventricles during the resting phase between heartbeats, when the heart relaxes and fills with blood. On the other hand, runners did not seem to display such far-reaching changes to their hearts, the study authors noted.

So how does rowing affect your heart, and is it different from running?

While both of these activities challenge your cardiovascular system, they do not do so in the same way, Dr. Bhaskar Semitha, a cardiologist and cardiothoracic surgeon at Fortis Hospital Vashi in Mumbai, India, told Live Science by email. "[This is why] elite rowers tend to have bigger, stronger hearts compared to elite runners, even when they have similar levels of cardiovascular fitness," Semitha said.

The reason lies in the movement itself. Running predominantly targets your legs. Rowing, on the other hand, is a low-impact exercise that simultaneously engages muscles in your legs, core and upper body.

"Rowing is a full-body workout that demands a high oxygen supply, so the heart has to pump more blood per beat," Semitha said. As such, exercising on one of the best rowing machines may force your heart to pump blood more efficiently than if you opted for a jog on a treadmill.

"Over time, this leads to a lower resting heart rate and a higher stroke volume [the volume of blood pumped from the ventricle per beat.] The heart is working less while delivering more oxygen," Semitha said.

This also leads to a significant increase in VO2 max, the maximum amount of oxygen a person can utilize during exercise, which is one of the key markers of performance in cardiovascular exercise. "That's why you will often see rowers with some of the lowest resting heart rates of any athletes," Semitha said.

Rowing and running elicit different heart rate responses even if these activities are performed at the same intensity, according to a 2002 study published in the European Journal of Applied Physiology. Scientists measured the blood lactate concentration — a biochemical marker of fatigue within exercising muscle — in 55 young, healthy men rowing on a rowing machine and running on a treadmill, and found that their heart rate was consistently lower during rowing even when both these exercises were performed with maximum effort.

Why? Again, it is all about the movement. The seated position during rowing makes it easier for blood to flow from the body's lower extremities back to the heart, scientists concluded.

There is a slight twist to the tale, though. Running, even at moderate intensity, is still more effective than rowing for increasing VO2 max, Sergii Putsov, PhD, a professional weightlifter, researcher and head of sports science at coaching service Torokhtiy Weightlifting, told Live Science. "Running forces your body to work against gravity, amplifying oxygen consumption and utilization. Since rowing is less weight-bearing than running, its overall ability to increase VO2 max is slightly lower for people who do not push themselves to high intensity," Putsov said.

Running also tends to cause more dramatic spikes in heart rate, particularly during high-intensity sprints. "[This is why] running puts more demand on arterial flexibility than rowing," Semitha said. "The repeated impact and fluctuations in intensity force the blood vessels to expand and contract rapidly, which can make arteries more elastic over time and therefore help prevent high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease."

So in the rowing vs running debate, which activity wins for cardiovascular benefits? Neither. Both rowing and running are good exercises for boosting stamina and strengthening the heart muscle, according to Putsov.

"However, their effectiveness may depend on your fitness level, specific goals and physical condition," Putsov said. "The full-body nature of rowing helps improve oxygen utilization efficiently without the harsh repetitive impact associated with running. Running, on the other hand, generates repetitive pounding on your joints and requires relatively high initial energy which can be overwhelming for beginners and people with poor cardiovascular fitness."

This article is for informational purposes only and is not meant to offer medical advice.

How to photograph the moon

When it comes to taking pictures of the night sky, photographing the moon is a fascinating and rewarding experience for photographers of all levels. Luckily, it’s also one of the more straightforward astrophotography skills to master, so it’s a great place to start for beginners in astrophotography. The moon is a great target in all its phases, but the full snow moon on Feb 1, and the blood moon eclipse on March 3, will be the perfect target.

From brilliant full-phase photographs to dramatic crescents and even the aforementioned blood-red eclipses, there are a number of different styles of photography you can capture — depending on the phase of the moon and the prevailing weather conditions — but like any form of photography, it still requires the right blend of the best astrophotography cameras, technique and creativity to get the most out of your images.

In this guide, we’ll delve into the essentials of moon photography and list some upcoming celestial events you might want to consider taking photos of. We will also look at the best camera equipment to use for photographing the moon, how to consider composition and style, and, perhaps most importantly, which camera settings to use.

Blood moon eclipse and other moon events in 2026

One of the biggest highlights for moon photographers in 2026 will be the total lunar eclipse (a "blood moon") on March 2-3, 2026. During this event, the Moon passes fully into the Earth's shadow and can take on a rich copper-red tone for nearly an hour. The eclipse will be visible late at night into the early morning hours, with the best views in the western half of the US. In the east, observers will see part of the eclipse as the Moon sets around dawn.

Another strong target arrives on August 27-28, when a deep partial lunar eclipse will be visible across much of the US. Although the moon won't fully enter Earth's shadow, a large portion of its surface will darken.

August also features a major solar event. On August 12, a total solar eclipse will cross parts of Europe, Greenland and Iceland, with Iceland offering some of the best viewing along the path of totality. While not a lunar photography event in the traditional sense, it showcases the moon's silhouette blocking the sun and allows photographers to capture the solar corona and diamond ring effect. Just make sure you have solar filters and the best solar viewing equipment ready in advance.

Toward the end of the year, the closest supermoon since 2019 arrives on December 23. This full moon occurs near perigee, making it appear larger and brighter than average — an effect that's most noticeable at moonrise and moonset, when it's ideal for pairing with landmarks and landscapes. Here are all the full moon dates in 2026 to add to your calendar.

Finally, there are several attractive moon/planet pairings, including a close alignment with Mercury on February 18 and a crescent moon near Venus on March 20. Both are visible shortly after sunset and work well for wide-angle shots that combine the moon with colorful twilight skies.

How to photograph a total lunar eclipse

Most of the suggestions we’ve included below work just as well if you’re capturing a moon event like the eclipse, but there are a couple of other things to bear in mind in addition to location, weather and setting.

Shutter speed — when the moon is in totality (meaning it’s fully eclipsed), you’ll have to adjust the shutter speed for brightness. We’d recommend experimenting between 0.5 and 2 seconds during this phase, as the sky around the moon will be a lot darker and you’ll need a longer setting to bring out the detail.

It’s also worth getting yourself to an area with limited light pollution, as any light in the area will be accentuated and you’ll want a darker environment to really bring the best out of the moon’s colors during the eclipse.

Best camera gear for moon photography

While you can photograph the moon with almost any camera, a DSLR or mirrorless camera will offer the best results due to its versatility and image quality. But, if you have something a little more compact, like a small point-and-shoot such as the Sony RX100, you’ll still be able to get decent results if you pay careful attention to the size of the sensor (1-inch and up recommended) and the aperture size of the lens. Something like an f/1.8 should work well.

Most importantly, any camera you use should allow you to manually adjust settings like shutter speed, aperture and ISO, which are crucial for moon photography. Many of the best astrophotography cameras also have dedicated astro features.

For those just getting started photographing the moon, entry-level DSLRs or mirrorless bodies are the best bet, and the Canon EOS Rebel series, Nikon D3500, or Sony Alpha a6400 would be good starting points to capture basic images. You can even capture decent pictures of the moon with your smartphone, and there are telephoto lens attachments and apps that allow manual settings. The process of digiscoping will also allow you to get a reasonable moon picture if paired with the right binoculars or scopes.

When it comes to more professional models, if the budget allows, we would highly recommend the Nikon Z8 or the Canon EOS R5. If you’re looking to print big or take your photography into more commercial realms, the Sony Alpha 7R series would be a good bet.

For an alternative route to photographing the total lunar eclipse, some of the best telescopes can produce stunning images, and a smart telescope will track and photograph the eclipse for you!

Best lenses for moon photography

A good lens is perhaps the most critical piece of equipment for moon photography. Since the moon is a small and distant object, a telephoto or super-telephoto lens is ideal, but there are still images you can take on a more modest budget, providing you look for something with at least 200mm of zoom that’s not a kit lens.

Aim for a lens with a focal length of at least 200mm, but lenses in the 400mm to 600mm range provide better detail and larger images of the moon. Prime lenses generally offer sharper images, but zoom lenses provide flexibility, especially if you want to include surrounding elements in your composition — we’ll touch on composition a little later on.

Good examples of the kinds of lenses to look at include the Canon EF 100-400mm f/4.5-5.6L IS II, the Nikon AF-S 200-500mm f/5.6E ED VR and the Sigma 150-600mm f/5-6.3 DG OS HSM.

Accessories for photographing the moon

Unlike many other types of astrophotography, you can capture good images of the moon without many accessories, as it’s normally bright and clear enough. However, to achieve the sharpest and most detailed shots, a degree of stability is required, especially when using a large zoom lens.

A sturdy tripod ensures your camera remains steady, preventing motion blur, and using a remote shutter release or the camera’s timer function minimizes vibrations caused by pressing the shutter button.

If you’re looking to get a little more adventurous, there are a number of additional accessories you can purchase such as moon-tracking mounts. These are equatorial mounts that rack the moon’s motion across the sky, enabling longer exposures without blurring.

Also, in terms of image quality and the final output, we’d recommend using a neutral-density (ND) or polarizing filter, which can reduce glare and enhance details, especially during bright moon phases when it may be difficult to expose both the moon and the surrounding landscape accurately.

Composition and style for moon photography

Photographing the moon is more than just capturing a glowing orb. Incorporating thoughtful composition and style can elevate your shots from ordinary to extraordinary.

A close-up shot with a long lens is perfect for highlighting the moon’s craters, ridges and surface textures, but wider shots that include the moon in a landscape or cityscape create compelling narratives. The moon rising over a mountain range, a crescent moon peeking through trees or a full moon reflected in a lake all give a sense of belonging and “being” to your images, and separate the terrestrial and the celestial.

Avoid placing the moon dead center unless you’re emphasizing symmetry and consider including foreground elements in your shot. Silhouettes are good options here — trees or buildings, for example, and landmarks such as lighthouses or monuments can provide a good sense of location.

It’s also worth experimenting with phases and the eclipses of the moon, in particular the biggest supermoon of the year, the Hunter’s Moon, which occurs in October. As the moon’s appearance changes throughout its phases, there’s a good opportunity to diversify and experiment with different creative options. A full moon is bright and detailed but can lack surface contrast, so capturing waxing or waning crescents is a good opportunity to practice different styles.

The best time to photograph the moon is during its rise or set, often called the golden hour or blue hour. During these times, the moon appears larger and has a warmer or cooler glow, making for striking images. Tools like The Photographer’s Ephemeris or Stellarium can be used to plan your shoot based on moonrise, moonset and phase information, including where you are in the world.

Pay careful attention to the weather conditions as occasionally, a bright clear sky isn’t ideal, and it can pay to have a few clouds around to add impact and drama.

Which camera settings to use

Once you’ve got your kit set up and you know the style of image you want to capture, it’s worth playing around with camera settings to find the configuration you’re most comfortable with. Because it reflects sunlight, the moon can be quite bright when the focus is on it entirely, so a common mistake is to overexpose the moon, resulting in a loss of detail.

To start with, try a shutter speed of around 1/125 to 1/250 seconds. Shorter exposures help capture sharp details and prevent motion blur from the moon’s movement.

If focusing directly on the moon, an aperture of f/8 to f/11 is ideal for sharpness and sufficient depth of field, depending on the lens, but bear in mind that you’ll need a faster lens if you want to capture the darker areas in your immediate environment. Keep the ISO low, around 100-400, to minimize noise and preserve detail, and switch to manual focus and adjust until the moon appears sharp through the viewfinder or on the LCD screen.

When it comes to white balance, use the daylight setting or manually adjust it to ensure natural colors, and experiment with warmer or cooler white balance settings – you can always look at this in more detail in the edit, too. Switch to spot metering to ensure the camera calculates exposure based on the moon’s brightness rather than the dark sky, and ensure you’re shooting in RAW format for maximum flexibility in post-processing.

Finally, consider using exposure bracketing to take multiple shots at different exposures. This technique is helpful for high dynamic range (HDR) compositions, where you blend images to capture details in both the moon and the surrounding landscape — this can be quite effective when photographing large celestial objects in detail.

If you’re just getting started with astrophotography, you’ll be pleased to know that it doesn’t take too much to take a great picture of the moon, and with minimal and relatively affordable equipment you can start capturing the moon in a lot of detail, especially when paired with the right telephoto lens.

With thoughtful composition and a solid understanding of your camera settings, you can capture stunning images that showcase the moon’s beauty, and even if you’re just experimenting with a smartphone, you may be surprised at the results with a bit of research.

Looking up at the night sky is awe-inspiring, but add a pair of binoculars, and suddenly, the heavens come alive in spectacular detail. Star clusters sparkle, distant galaxies reveal themselves and nebulas glow. There are even a couple of eclipses coming up that will demand a close-up, like the total lunar eclipse on March 13-14.

Choose a pair of the best stargazing binoculars — with specs like 8x42, 7x50 or 10x50, or thereabouts — and another layer of the night sky will be unlocked. Here’s what to look at in a pair of binoculars from February to April.

If you want to get even closer to the night sky, the best telescopes will give you that extra bit of power.

9 best things to see with binoculars between February to April 2025

The moon and total lunar eclipse

The lunar surface itself is an excellent target for binoculars, with dark areas and ancient lava fields called maria easily visible. You can look at the moon at any time — most conveniently soon after sunset between the new moon and the full moon — but don’t miss the total lunar eclipse on March 13-14, 2025, if you’re in North or South America. During that event, the lunar surface will turn a reddish-pink for 65 minutes (hence the name 'blood moon').

The Pleiades (M45)

Pronounced 'Plee-er-Deez', this sparkling open cluster of stars totals six or seven visible to the naked eye (hence the nickname 'The Seven Sisters') and about 100 stars in a pair of the best binoculars. A bright object in the constellation Taurus, the Pleiades will be closely visited by the moon on March 5, April 1 and April 29, 2025.

Orion’s Sword

The closest star-forming region to the solar system, the Orion Nebula (M42) is easy to find with the naked eye but looks its best through any pair of binoculars. Just find the fuzzy but bright patch known as Orion’s Sword below the three stars in Orion’s Belt, and you’re there. It’s best seen from January to April.

The ’S’ in Orion’s Belt

All stars look like points of light in a pair of binoculars, so they don't generally make for great targets. One exception is Orion’s Belt, which is an instantly recognizable line of three equally spaced stars — Alnitak, Alnilam and Mintaka. Winding between the latter two stars is a lovely S-shape of stars. It’s a staple of the binocular night sky from January to April.

Hyades Cluster

The V-shape of stars in the Hyades, in the constellation Taurus, is a classic binocular site that in close-up reveals hundreds of stars. At just 151 light-years distant, the Hyades is the closest open cluster of stars to the solar system. Its main bright star may appear to be the red giant Aldebaran, the 'eye of the bull', but it’s unrelated to the Hyades and lies just 65 light-years away. It’s best seen from January to April.

The sun and solar eclipses

If you can find some solar filters for your binoculars — or buy some special solar binoculars — then 2025 is the perfect year to get eyes on the sun. When it’s close to solar maximum, its once-every-11-years peak in activity, sunspots are typically visible every day. As a bonus, there is a partial solar eclipse on March 29, 2025, which will be visible at sunrise from eastern Canada and the northeastern U.S. as well as Europe and northwest Africa.

Beehive Cluster (M44)

Perhaps the most beautiful star cluster to see through a pair of binoculars is the Beehive Cluster in the constellation Cancer. Best seen from February to April between the constellations Leo and Gemini (the latter of which has Mars in attendance), M44 displays hundreds of stars in binoculars.

Andromeda Galaxy (M31)

The farthest object it’s possible to see in the night sky with the naked eye, Andromeda nevertheless only truly impresses in a pair of binoculars. At 'just' 2.5 million light-years distant, this close galaxy to our Milky Way is visible halfway between the W-shaped constellation of Cassiopeia and the star Alpheratz in the 'Great Square' of Pegasus, in the western sky just after dark during spring. It looks like a fuzzy patch of light, so use the averted vision technique to see it: look slightly to the side of M31, and your peripheral vision — which is more sensitive to brightness — will better appreciate what a spectacular object this is.

The 'Horse and Rider'

Binoculars can reveal intriguing double stars. Those with keen eyesight can look at the star Mizar in the constellation Ursa Major — better known as the Big Dipper or Plough asterism — and see two stars. However, this is far easier to do using a pair of binoculars. Mizar has a dimmer companion called Alcor, which is easy to split with a pair of binoculars. Known as the 'horse and rider', the two stars — about 82 light-years distant — don’t orbit each other. They’re visible to those in the northern hemisphere for most of the year, apart from fall.

There are about 4,000 different snake species in the world today. They occupy a wide range of habitats — some dwell underground while others live high in the canopies of trees, and many spend their entire lives on the ground. Some even spend a significant portion of their lives underwater. They have adapted to climates ranging from tropical rainforests and deserts to marine environments and the freezing Arctic.

These legless reptiles evolved from four-legged lizards during the Jurassic period (201 million to 145 million years ago). Like nearly all living reptiles, snakes are cold-blooded, meaning they rely on the environment to regulate the temperature of their bodies. As a result, snakes are frequently seen warming themselves in the sun.

Though snakes are often thought to be dangerous, only around 600 species are venomous, about a third of which possess venom that is fatal to humans, according to National Geographic. Even these species are inclined to avoid humans and only strike when threatened. Most snakes are entirely harmless, and they are all crucial predators that help maintain food webs.

4 fast facts about snakes

• Snakes smell by flicking their forked tongues and picking up odors that are transported to special organs on the roofs of their mouths.
• Snakes do not have eyelids. Each eye is covered by a clear membrane that is periodically shed along with the skin.
• Some species of snake have the remnants of legs in the region where their lizard ancestors would have had legs.
• All snakes shed their skin. They do this to grow and remove parasites.

Everything you need to know about snakes

Snake pictures

Discover more about snakes

—13 of the most venomous snakes on the planet

—Do snakes have ears?

—What's the biggest animal that a snake can swallow?

If you have signed up to run a spring marathon, the New Year usually sees the start of your training programme. Whether you are starting from a few runs a week, or are an experienced marathoner, most of these programmes tend to last 16 weeks. That probably seems an eternity right now but will soon seem horribly short. You’ll get through a lot of miles in those 16 weeks, and encounter a fair few obstacles, so it’s important to make sure you’ve got the basics right.

When it comes to kit, running is a pretty simple sport and can also be a relatively inexpensive one. All you really need is good running shoes, some appropriate running clothes - and a lot of willpower. Alas, we can’t find a link where you can buy that, sorry. But when it comes to tracking your runs, recovering from them, and keeping you on your feet, there’s a lot of kit we can help and advise on, from the very best Garmin watches to the top treadmills for home training.

Perhaps the most important thing you can do, however, is simply train consistently. You will almost certainly not tick off every run on that 16 week programme — and that's fine. It is far better to rest a sore muscle and come back to the plan fully refreshed, than to push too hard and end up really injured.

Tracking your training

One of the best tools you can buy to help with you training is a GPS running watch. Yes, you could just use a notebook and a pen, but who has the time? Using a watch that keeps track of the miles you have covered is not only useful, but when you look back on what you have achieved so far, it can also be highly motivating.

Though many runners may use a GPS watch to try and track their big efforts and to help them hit their top paces, it's actually equally important to consider them as a tool to make sure you take enough rest. Many if not most modern smartwatches can track your sleep and your HRV balance, which are great indicators of how well you are recovering from your new training regime.

They can also make sure that when your plan tells you to run easy, you really do run easy, and keep your heart rate low enough. And they can also track all the other things that you can do to help your marathon training, from cross-training on another piece of cardio equipment if you are nursing a niggle or injury, to tracking your resistance training, which is a really important and often-neglected part of marathon training.

Here are some of our favorite GPS watches, but you can read our round-up of our expert reviews of all the best fitness trackers here.

Running at home

Running outside might be the cheapest option, but it's not always possible. You might live somewhere with very cold, icy weather or snow - or even somewhere where it's just too hot and humid to run outdoors. Maybe you have family to care for, and can't just leave the house whenever you want. Or perhaps you just don't feel safe.

Whatever your reason, a home treadmill can make all the difference and allow you to continue your training in the comfort of your own personal space.

Many runners wonder if there is any difference between running on a treadmill and running outside. Both have their pros and cons. It's hard to replicate hills on a treadmill, and that's something to be considered if your marathon includes inclines. Many people might find a treadmill far more boring and therefore harder to motivate themselves to run. But equally, a treadmill can offer a slightly softer surface that can protect you against injury.

When it comes to the basics, though, experts have found little evidence to suggest that there is a difference between treadmill running vs running outside when it comes to your actual energy expenditure. For instance, researchers at The American Council on Exercise discovered that it is the speed that you run and the type of running that you do that impacts the number of calories burned, more than where you do it.

So if a home treadmill keeps you running, then it's a great option for you. And we've tested a huge array of them to find the best for all budgets and spaces.

Running shoes

It might sound really obvious, but the best running shoes are the ones that work best for you. Even if that means a pair that aren't, alas, as nicely designed as some on the market. A good pair of shoes will protect your joints from the impact of pounding pavements or treadmills. They should be comfortable and not pinch or rub anywhere. Many people go up a size or two in running shoes vs everyday shoes to ensure a comfortable blister-free run.

We all run in our own unique way so it's important to get a pair that fit your 'gait' or running style. The best way to find this out is to head in person to a running store and get an expert to look at how you run (usually on a treadmill) and give their advice. Your gait can even change over time, so even experienced runners might want to do this from time to time.

When it comes to gait and running shoes, the main categories of runner we all fall into are "overpronator", "underpronator" (also known as supination) and "neutral" . It's really important not to obsess too much on the way you run and try to change it because you think one way is better than the other. Yes, extremes of pronation can raise your risk of injury, but forcing an unnatural change can also do so, and do so quickly.

When it comes to buying running shoes, buy a pair that support how you do run, not how you would ideally like to. And once you know what you are looking for, there are some great bargains available online.

We also have a guide to the best running shoes for supination (also known as under pronation)

Best recovery tools

Recovery is probably the most under appreciated yet crucially important part of marathon training. Whether you are training for your first ever marathon or are a seasoned pro, you'll be building up to long runs and putting your body through new stresses and strains - probably all while holding down a full time job and a busy lifestyle. So resting, getting good sleep and eating well are crucial.

In addition to the basics, and to help ease the aches and pains of your increased mileage, foam rollers are a brilliant and inexpensive piece of kit. They can be used for stretching, warm ups and cold downs, and to help improve your flexibility, mobility and range of motion. They can also help reduce the symptoms of DOMS (the pain and stiffness you can experience post-workout). Studies show that while their effect on performance itself may be negligible, they certainly can help relieve pain from sore muscles.

Read our full guide to foam rollers here, and to really maximise your recovery rate, check out our guide to the best massage guns.

Not long ago, AirPods were mocked for looking like toothbrush heads jammed in ears, but Apple’s earbuds have grown to be so popular that there are now multiple versions.

The two priciest among them, the AirPods Max and the AirPods Pro (2nd Generation) are likely to get plenty of attention, and picking between them isn’t as easy as you may think. Despite their radically different form factors, both offer many of the same features, but with unique caveats.

With that in mind, we’ve pitted the AirPods Max and the AirPods Pro against each other in a battle for audio dominance, taking into account sound quality, connectivity and design.

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: How we tested

Our reviewer used both the AirPods Pro (2nd Generation) and AirPods Max for a number of months, switching between both in different situations.

Both were used for music, podcasts and movies — in scenarios like busy streets, cozy coffee shops and even long-haul flights.

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Which has more features?

In many ways, the features of the AirPods Pro and AirPods Max are almost identical. Both offer impressive microphones, as well as instant pairing with Apple devices, including the iPhone, iPad, Mac and the Apple Watch.

While they do differ in terms of battery life, both offer excellent noise-cancellation options, too (more on those shortly). Both will also pause your music if you remove them (or, in the AirPods Pro’s case, remove one of the buds).

The biggest difference comes down to the on-device controls. The AirPods Pro have a swipeable volume control (new from the last version), as well as stems which can be squeezed to input commands.

Those commands – including answering calls, skipping tracks and switching noise control – can all be replicated on the AirPods Max, but it uses a more traditional button. It also has a Digital Crown (a larger version of the one seen on the Apple Watch since its inception) for adjusting volume, which we find easier.

It’ll come down to personal preference, but for ease of volume adjustment, we’d pick the AirPods Max.

And yet, the killer feature of the second-generation AirPods Pro is the ability to find and locate them using audio. It works on each bud, as well as their case, making it easy to find them underneath other items or when they’ve fallen down the back of the sofa.

There’s an argument that the AirPods Max are too large to lose, and that they can also be located using Apple’s Find My service. However, having lost our AirPods Pro around the place, they get the nod for this very handy feature.

Winner: AirPods Pro

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Which has better sound quality?

Perhaps it’s to be expected, given they cost twice as much as the AirPods Pro, but the AirPods Max are an excellent pair of headphones for just about any kind of audio.

Switching between bass-filled rap, a spot of metal and a few orchestral pieces, the AirPods Max do a great job with just about anything you throw at them. Everything is balanced with just enough nuance, and it doesn’t get distorted at higher volumes either.

The same can be said of the AirPods Pro, but everything is a little flatter. Considering the size difference the Pro buds are excellent, but they can’t match the larger, grandiose soundscape offered by the Max.

When it comes to the microphone, we’d struggle to pick a winner; each does a good job of isolating the user’s voice.

Both support Apple’s Spatial Audio, too, so that they can attune audio to your head’s position. Think of this as something close to surround sound, but pumped straight into your ears.

Winner: AirPods Max

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Which has better functionality?

The size difference moves in favor of AirPods Pro this time around, with the diminutive buds simply much easier to carry around than the sizable AirPods Max.

Even when put into the case, they can fit into the smallest of pockets, making them ideal for just about any errand you need to run. The AirPods Max, for all of their sleek design and excellent audio quality, are a sizable consideration when packing a bag.

On the other hand, the AirPods Max offer a better noise-canceling experience by virtue of that form factor. Both products offer a transparency mode for hearing environmental noise and noise canceling to focus on the audio itself, but the AirPods Max handle the latter better because they cover your entire ear.

Because each cup is firm but comfortable, they naturally let in less of the outside world. That may make the AirPods Max a better choice for anyone looking to focus on the task at hand.

Still, for the majority of functionality, we’re opting for the AirPods Pro here.

Winner: AirPods Pro

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Which design is better?

There’s an argument that design is a moot point, particularly given the different experiences on offer here.

The AirPods Pro (2nd Generation) look very similar to their predecessors, and that’s no bad thing. They continue the lineage of silicon ear tips, offering three sizes right out of the box that are easy to switch, and the iOS fit test is particularly handy for ensuring a secure seal that’s not too tight.

On the other hand, the AirPods Max are a first-gen effort that definitely has a little room for improvement. They’re surprisingly robust, and there are no weight issues because of how well they’re balanced, but an inability to fold them up makes them trickier than you’d expect to pop in a bag.

Some kind of carry case would have helped, too. The one included acts simply as a cover for the headphones and is unlikely to prevent damage when they’re not being used.

Still, it’s a case of “different things for different needs,” so it’s tough to settle on one.

Winner: Tie

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Which has a better fit?

The AirPods Pro are impressively comfortable, even for long periods of the day. We’ve tested them in busy coffee shops, quiet offices, while out for a walk and much more. We’d still avoid them for working out (opting for the Beats Fit Pro in those instances), but the AirPods Pro remain more comfortable for our money.

On the other hand, the AirPods Max are delightful, but in a very different way. For one, the soft covers over each earcup never feel uncomfortable. Indeed, while their size (and price) may make you less likely to throw them in a bag, they remain comfortable to wear for long periods.

We almost can’t pick a winner here, but just for their comfort and low profile when going for a walk, we’re opting for the AirPods Pro. It’s hard not to feel conscious of the AirPods Max when out and about.

Winner: AirPods Pro

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Which has better battery life?

The AirPods Pro offer around six hours of listening time for each earbud, although that can nudge a little closer to eight with the noise cancellation off. The charging case gets things to 24 hours, but you’ll naturally need to pop them in there for a period.

The charging case can be charged magnetically, which is a plus, but you can use Lightning, too.

The AirPods Max also use Lightning, and can offer over 20 hours of continuous audio with noise canceling on. That may make them the obvious winner, but the most bizarre omission is a lack of a power button. This means that they’ll naturally lose charge just sitting in your bag. The aforementioned case puts them into a low-power state, but it’s still something to consider.

Winner: AirPods Max

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Which has better reviews?

On Amazon, the AirPods Max currently have an average rating of 4.4 out of 5, with many noting their durability as a positive, while also mentioning the inability to fold them down to make them more portable.

The AirPods Pro shade things though, with a 4.6 rating and considerably more reviews, many of which have noted the impressive audio quality and spatial audio.

Winner: AirPods Pro

Apple AirPods Max vs AirPods Pro: Verdict

It’s a close call, but we’d pick the AirPods Pro (2nd Generation) for the majority of customers. Their audio is impressive for such a small pair of buds, and we also liked the easy-to-find charging case, as well as the small footprint.

If you’re more of an audiophile, need even better noise-canceling (perhaps for long flights), or just want a pair of headphones to use while at a desk studying or working all day, consider the AirPods Max.

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is the largest and most powerful space telescope that humanity has ever created, enabling scientists to gaze further into the universe than ever before.

But more impressively, thanks to the (relatively) limited speed of light, the JWST can effectively peer back in time to the early universe — over 13.5 billion years ago — to study how the first galaxies were born after the Big Bang. Since it launched back in 2021, we've already made some staggering discoveries about the cosmos.

Related: 42 jaw-dropping James Webb Space Telescope images

Originally known as the "Next Generation Space Telescope," the telescope was somewhat controversially named after James E. Webb, one of NASA's early administrators. Webb ran NASA from 1961 to 1968, overseeing the Apollo program and retiring mere months before NASA landed a man on the moon.

But how much do you know about this scientific marvel? Take our JWST quiz and find out. Be sure to log in if you want to compete on our leaderboard, and hit the hint button if you can't see a way to the answer.

More science quizzes

—Mars quiz: Is your knowledge of the Red Planet out of this world?

—Milky Way quiz: How well do you know our home galaxy?

—Sun quiz: How well do you know our home star?

Archaeologists wasted no time in 2024, digging up incredible finds, such as the remains of an ancient temple in Greece and golden tongues in ancient Egyptian burials, and then analyzing them to learn more about our past.

Meanwhile, people studying human evolution found precious clues about our extinct relatives. For instance, they discovered that 1.4 million-year-old stone tools, the earliest in Europe, weren't made by modern humans. And they learned that Neanderthals, our closest extinct relatives, buried their dead differently from how Homo sapiens treated the dead.

But are you a true archaeology nerd? We've looked over this year's archaeology stories and chosen some of the biggest and most exciting findings. Remember to login to put your name on the leaderboard; hints are available if you click the yellow button. We're rooting for you!

More science quizzes

—Ancient Maya quiz: What do you know about the civilization that built pyramids across Mesoamerica?

—Viking quiz: How much do you know about these seaborne raiders, traders and explorers?

—Pompeii quiz: How much do you know about the Roman town destroyed by Mount Vesuvius?

2024 was an extraordinary year for the planet. Earth experienced one of the strongest El Niño events on record, leading to a supercharged hurricane season that brought record-breaking storms. The Sahara was hit by an extraordinary rainfall event — a year's worth of rain fell in just a few days, leading to lakes appearing across parts of northern Africa.

Scientists mapped the underside of an Antarctic glacier and discovered huge, mysterious structures carved into the ice, while giant viruses were found on Greenland's dark ice and red snow.

How much do you remember about planet Earth news from the last 12 months? Take our quiz to find out. Make sure you login to add your name to the leaderboard, and if you need a hint, tap the yellow button.

More quizzes

—Equator quiz: Can you name the 13 countries that sit on Earth's central line?

—Ancient Egypt quiz: Test your smarts about pyramids, hieroglyphs and King Tut

—Conspiracy theory quiz: Test your knowledge of unfounded beliefs, from flat Earth to lizard people

—US volcano quiz: How many can you name in 10 minutes?

From never-before-seen cells to new drugs, Live Science has covered a slew of medical news in the past year. Some treatments made it out of the laboratory and into the clinic at long last, while other, early-stage experiments sparked excitement for innovations that could help human patients in the future.

Try your hand at the quiz below to test your knowledge of health news from 2024.

More quizzes

—Evolution quiz: Can you naturally select the correct answers?

—Periodic table of elements quiz: How many elements can you name in 10 minutes?

—Charles Darwin quiz: Test your knowledge on the 'father of evolution'

Ever wonder why some people build muscle more easily than others or why freckles come out in the sun? Send us your questions about how the human body works to community@livescience.com with the subject line "Health Desk Q," and you may see your question answered on the website!

This year has seen a flurry of exciting advances in technology — from new artificial intelligence (AI) models to promising leaps in quantum computing. But how many of this year's biggest stories have you been following?

We've pulled together some of the top breakthroughs in technology this year so you can test your knowledge. Make sure you login to add your name to the leaderboard, and if you need a hint, tap the yellow button.

Good luck!

Each year, doctors document numerous medical conundrums they encounter — such as infections rarely seen in humans, enigmatic symptoms that seem to come out of nowhere and injuries sustained under unusual circumstances. These case reports raise awareness of rare conditions, share insights on how to best diagnose or treat a given issue, or point to potential emerging trends in medicine.

At Live Science, we cover case reports regularly, in part because they also shed light on how the human body works and what can happen when things go wrong. Test your knowledge of case reports we've covered this year by taking the quiz below.

Related: A woman got 'broken heart syndrome' after eating too much wasabi

More medical cases

—A woman cleaned her fish tank and ended up in the hospital

—A man's 'magic mushroom' tea led to a bad trip to the hospital

—A man's brain started bleeding after a dentist appointment

Ever wonder why some people build muscle more easily than others or why freckles come out in the sun? Send us your questions about how the human body works to community@livescience.com with the subject line "Health Desk Q," and you may see your question answered on the website!

This was a big year for the robots. Large language models (LLMs) and other engineering advancements have made robots more versatile and maneuverable. And many new robots can perform tasks previously believed to be unachievable in the near term.

From new types of drones to humanoid robots, we've rounded up some of the most exciting advancements we've spotted in 2024 so you can test your knowledge. Just make sure to log in and add your score to our leaderboard. And just tap the yellow button if you need a hint. Good luck.

More science quizzes

—Human spaceflight quiz: How well do you know our journey into space?

—James Webb Space Telescope quiz: How well do you know the world's most powerful telescope?

—Periodic table of elements quiz: How many elements can you name in 10 minutes?

Every year, scientists discover strange new things about the animal world — and 2024 was no exception. For example, this year, researchers found a creature so big it can be seen from space, a fish with weird crab legs that uses them to lick the seafloor, and baby eels that can escape a predator's stomach by wriggling through their gills.

But there's so much more.

We've put together a quiz of some of the weirdest animal news stories of the year to test yourself on. Make sure you login to add your name to the leaderboard, and if you need a hint, tap the yellow button.

Good luck!

More science quizzes

—Evolution quiz: Can you naturally select the correct answers?

—Shark quiz: How much do you know about these iconic ocean superstars?

—Crocodile quiz: Test your knowledge on the prehistoric predators

—Orca quiz: Will you sink or swim?